. ■rf->:. ^-.e.' r ^' >' ," 'A, .. vv '' \^S'. '^'/- THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 9/0 3 <- ~>-^~ OSTYAK TTPES AND COSTUMES. THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS THE UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY By ELISEE RECLUS EDITED By a. H. KEANE, B.A. JIEMF. OF COUNCIL, ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITITE. VOL. VI. ASIATIC RUSSIA ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS LONDON J S. VIRTUE & CO,, Limited, 294, CITY ROAD 6 v< CONTENTS. TAGS 1 33 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Chap. I. General Cemarks on Asia Plateaux : Highlands and Lowl inds, p. 3. Geological Formation : Igneous Forces, p. 6. Climate: Diminution of Jloisture, p. 8. Areas of Inland Drainage, p. 9. Rivers flowing t^eawa^ds, p. 12. Temperature, Rainfall, Vegetation, p. H. Peninsulas, p. 15. Inhabitants, Culture, p. 18. Religions, p. 21. Historical Retrospect, Migrations, p. 23. European Influences, p. 24. Progress of Discovery, p. 25. Political Rivalries, p. 28. Chap. II. Caucasia I. Caucasia : The Ponto-Caspian Mountain System, p. 33. The Great Caucasus, p. 34. Geological Formation, Volcanic Action, p. 38. Water Systems, Snow-line, Rainfall, Glaciers, p. 40. Vegetation, Fauna, p. 43. Inhabitants : Varied Ethnical and Linguistic Elements, p. 46. Russian Conquests : Main Physical Divisions, p. 48. II. Wi stern Caucasia: Kuban Basin, p. 50. River Systems : Kuban Basin, p. 50. 'I'aman Peninsula, p. 53. Inhabitants : the Cherkesses, p. 54. The Abkhasians and Cossacks, p. 57. Topography, p. GO. III. Centhal Caucasus : Kuma and Tlrek Basins, p. 64. River Systems : Kuma Basin, p. 65. The Terek, p. 68. Inhabitants: the Kabards, p. 70. The Osses and Xogai Tatars, p. 71. Topography, p. 73. IV. Eastekn Caucasia : Daghestan, p. 78. Rivtr Systems, p. 79. Inhabitants : the Chechenzes, p. 79. The Lezghians, Tats, and Tatars, p. 83. Topography, p. 86. V. Inguk, Rion, and Chorukh Ba.ments of Akmolixsk, Semlpalatixsk, Tomsk, Tobolsk, Eastern Distkicts OF THE Governments of Perm and Okenbckg, p. 329. The Irtish Basin, p. 33U. Course of the Ob, p. 334. Inhabitants of the Ob Basin : the Voguls, p. 338. The Ostiaks, p. 340. The Ural Mining Districts, p. 344. Topography of West Siberia, p. 346. IV. Yenesei- Baikal Basin, p. 352. Basin of the Western Yenesei, p. 352. Inhabitants: the ChuJes, p. 355. The Soyots and Karagasses, p. 356. The Tunguses, p 358. Topography, p. 361. The Baikal- Angara Ba.. Parallelism o.the Main Asiatic Ranges 3. MiivXT EvEKEsr . . . • 4. The Han-hai : a dried-up Sea-bed' . 5. Arid lieirions and Closed Basins of Asia 6. Isobars in January . . • • 7. Isobars in July 8. Curves of the Eastern Asiatic Seaboard and Islands . . • • • 9. Density of the Asiatic Populations 10. Distribution of the Asiatic Races U. Chief Religions of Central Asia 12. Chief Itineraries of Central Asia 13. European Influence in Asia CAUCASIA. 14. Bed of the Caspian . 15. Geological Formations Caucasus 16. Hot Springs and Xaphtha Regions in the Caucasus ..... 17. Profile of the Caucasus as seen from Pati' gorsk . 18. Rainfall of the Caucasus 19. The Kazbek : View taken from the Kazbek Station 20. Kazbek and Devdoraki Glaciers 21. Forests of the CaucaS' 8 22. The Western Caucasus seen from off Cape Kodor ..... 23. The Akhtari Liman .... 24. The Kuku-Oba Mud Volcano . 25. Abkhasian Tyi'E .... 26. Cossack Sentinel .... 27. Valley of the Bzib .... 28. The Taman Peninsula 29. Valleys of Erosion in tbe Kuban Basin 30. Passanaur, ov the Tifus- Vladikavkaz Route . 31. The Elbruz Group 32. Ramification of the Kalaus 33. Delta and flooded Districts of the L wer Terek 31. The Terek Floods of 1863 . 35.* Patigorsk and the Region of Thermal Waters 36. The Vladikavkiz-Ananur Route through the Terek Valley 37. The Tebulos-mta Group . 38. Mouths of the Terek and Lower Sulak 39. The Kuba District .... 40. NooAi YoiTH ..... 41. Mount GCnih ..... 42. Derbcnt 43. Mouth of the Rion .... 44. Upper Ingiir Valley .... 45. MlNOltELIAN liAPY .... 46. Kutais and the Kion iind Kvirila Junction PAGE 3 4 5 8 11 13 14 16 17 19 22 27 29 35 17 40 41 43 44 45 50 52 54 58 50 61 62 63 65 66 67 68 69 74 76 77 80 81 84 85 87 89 93 95 97 and Alex 47. PoTi .... 48. Batim 49. Akhalkalaki Plateau . 50. Tatar Type 51. The Kiira and Araxis Confluence 52. Mouths of the Kura . 53. Chief Regions of Earthquakes in Caucasia 54. Oscillations of the Baku Coast during th last 1,500 Years .... 55. The Apsheron Peninsula . 56. Mtzkhet, Anc-ihnt Capital of Geobgi 57. The Khevsur, Tush, and Pshav Lands 58. The Suram Pass and Mesk Mountains 59. The Kura Valley between Gori and Mtzkhet (iO. Tiflis .... 61. Yelizavetpol and Vicinity . 62. The Telav Basin 63. Baku and Cape Bail-Burni 64. Lenkoran .... 65. Recent Russian Conquests 66. Ararat .... 07. Mount Ararat 68. Ala-goz .... 69. Lake Gok-chai . 70. The Alapolarim Lava Streams 71. Araxis and Zauga Basin . 72. Aumenian Woman . 73. The Kars cbai VaUey: Kara andrap'il ..... 74. Nakhichevan 75. Progress of Russian Conquest . 76. Fever Districts in Caucasia 77. Density of the Population of the Caucasu in 1873 per Square Mile 78. Highways in Caucasia 79. Section of the Route from Vladikavkaz to Jufa 80. Shiab^ and Punnite ; in Eastern Caucasia 81. Baku Harbour 52. Sta\'rnpol THE ARALO-CASPIAX BASIN. 53. Routes of Explorers in the Aralo-Caspian Basin ....... 84. Russian Encroachments in Turkestan 85. Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Pamir 86. The Alai and Tkans-Alai Range . 87. Relief of the Highlands and Plateaux between the Hindu-Knsh and Tian- eban ....... 8S. The Alai Plati au 89. The Shchurovskiy Glacier 90. Routes of Explorers in the Western Pamir 91. Relative Area of the Tian-shan, Alps, and Pyrenees ...... 92. Relative Relief of the Tian-shan, Alps, and Pyrenees . . . • • 93. Chief Crests of the Tian-shan . PAOR 98 99 101 102 103 106 108 109 110 112 117 121 122 125 126 127 128 129 131 132 133 135 136 137 143 144 146 143 150 151 153 154 1"5 156 157 159 163 164 166 168 170 172 173 174 175 17G 177 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. Vll 94. Eastern Chains of the Tian-shan 95. Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Tian- shan ....... 96. Ovis Karelini, Argali, Oris Poli 97. The Aktogoi Defile 98. Western Chains of the Tian-shan . 99. Routes of E-xplorera in the Western Tian- shan 100. Sauru and Tarbagalai .... 101. Vegetation of the Kizil-kum 102. Range of Vegetation in Turkestan . 103. Petrov Glacier 104. Lower Part of the lir-tash Glacier . 10.5. The Sir Delta 106. Lake Victoria, or Sari-kul 107. Map in the Catalonian Atlas of 1375 108. VaUey of the Uzboi at the Aidin Wells . 109. The Balkan Gulf 110. Inundation of the O.xus in 1878 111. The Aral Sea 112. Old River Beds of the Aralo-Caspiaa Basin ...... 113. Ak-tau and MurtTiy-kultuk 114. Entrance to the Kaia-boghaz . 115. The Tuk-karagan Lakes 116. Tentiak-sor ...... 117. Ogurchinskiy Island .... 118. Kulali Island 119. Turkoman Female Head-dress 120. Tekke Turkoman Oasis in the Atok 121. Area of the Turkoman Raids South of Kizil-arvat ..... 122. A Wealthy Kirghiz .... 123. A Kirghiz Woman .... 124. Populations of the Hi Basin . 125. Sarte Type ...... 126. Population of Ferghana .... 127. A Tajik Mollah 128. KlLA-PANJA, ON THE UpPER OxUS : FouTS at the Foot or the P.4mir 129. East Badakshan 130. Badakshan and Kunduz .... 131. Bamian Pass and Kunduz Route 13i. Ruins of Balkh and Mazar-i sherif . 133. Saripul and Shibirkhan VaUey 134. The Maimene VaUey .... 135. Khanates of Afghan Turkestan West of the Oxus 136. Merv and Sarakhs Oases . 137. Ak-tash Valley and Movntain . 138. Shehr-i-sebs and Karshi .... 139. Bokhara: Ruins in the Interior ok THE City ...... 140. Oasis of Bokhara ..... 141. Khiva 142. A MiNAKET in Khiva .... 1 13. Khiva : Exterior or a JIosqve . 144. Krasnovodsk Bay . . . . . 145. Cheleken Island and Michael Gulf . 146. Hassan-kalch Bay ..... 147. Ashur-adeh ...... 148. Valleys of the Atrek and Gurgen . 149. S.amark.and ...... 150. Samarkand: Approach to the Citadel PAGE FIO. 178 151 180 152 181 1S3 153 186 154 155 187 1.56 190 157 196 158 197 159 198 160 199 161 201 162. 203 206 207 163. 208 161. 209 165. 210 166. 211 167. 212 213 168. 214 169. 215 216 170. 217 171. 221 172. 223 173. 224 174. 227 228 175. 232 176. 233 234 177. 233 178. 179. 239 180. 241 181. 242 182. 243 183. 244 246 184. 247 185. 248 186. 251 187. 254 188. 256 189. 259 26(1 190. 261 191. 262 192. 263 193. 264 194. 266 267 195. 268 196. 269 270 197. 271 198. PAGE . Samarkand : The Gir-emir Tomb of Tamerlane 272 . Varzamixor : Upper Zarafshan Val- ley 273 . Oasis f f the Zarafshan .... 275 . From Kokan to Marghilan . . . 277 . Khojend: Gexek.vl View . . . 2"9 . Khojend and Neighbourhood . . . 280 . Plain of Tashkend 281 . A Street in Tashkend .... 282 . Kulja and Neighbouring Mines . . 285 . Disputed Territory in Kulja . . .286 . Chinese Type, Kulja .... 287 . Projected Railway Lines in Western Asia 289 SIBERIA. , West Sibeiia, according to Herberstein . 293 Sakhalin, according to La Perouse . . 295 Gulf of C.\stries : La Perouse Gate . 296 Water Highways and Portages across Siberia ...... 298 Duration of the Frost and Thaw on the Yenisei and Lena .... 300 Drift Ice on the Banks of the Yenisei . 301 Shores of the Y'eniseiworn by Glacial Actios ...... 302 BanksoftheY'emsei: Ice-formed Levee 304 Climate of Y'akutsk .... 306 Northern Limit of Forest Vegetation . 309 Trailing Larch 150 Y'ears old : Quarter of the natural Size . 310 LaR-H Forkst on the Boganida, a Tri- butary OF THE Katanga. . . 312 Range of Animal Species in North Asia . 313 The ChindagCtui, a Tributary of the Ihtish, Province of Semipalatinsk 320 Lake Teletzkoye 321 Zmeinogorsk . . . . . .328 Lake Zaisan 330 The Ust-Kamenogorsk Defile . . .331 Lakes Chany and Sartlam in 1870 . . 332 Dried-up Streams in the Barnaul District 334 Projected Canals between the Ob and Y'enisei ...... 335 Network of Streams at the Ob and Kct Junction 336 Lower Course and Mouth of the Ob . 337 Lakes and Marshes in the Iset Basin . 345 Y'ckateiinburg and Berezovskiy . . 348 U|iper Y'enisei Basin and Minusinsk Stcopes So'i Rock IxscRiPTtoN on the Banks op the Y'enisei 361 Region of t!ie Y'enisei Gold Mines . . 362 From Krasnoyarsk to Kansk . . . 363 The Muxku-sakd'K Group . . . 365 I^Iunku-sardik and Kamar-daban . 367 Thb " Cup " at the Source of the Oka 368 Depths of the Western Baikal . . 370 The Angara below the Padu.vskiy Rapid 374 Rapids of the Angara .... 375 Populations of the Irkutsk Government . 381 vm LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOKS. 199. Coast of the Taimir Peninsula 200. Old Lake traversed by the Vitim . 201. Lena Delta 202. Archipelago of New Siberia 203. Routes of Anjou and Wrangi 11 204. KoxTAM Bay : the Veoa at Anchor 205. Yakutsk 206. Volcanoes at Cape Povorotnoii, South of Avacha Bay .... 207. Bering Sea 208. Bering Strait 209. Currents of the Bering Waters 210. Avacha Bay ..... 211. Plateaux and Highlands of East Siberia 212. Lake Khanka 213. Islhmus of Kizi .... 214. Mouths of the Amur 215. Bat of the Golden Horn . 216. Bay of Castries .... rAOE no. . 383 217 384 218 . 366 389 219 390 220 391 221 . 397 222 223 . 400 224 403 225 . 404 226 . 405 227 . 415 228 . 418 229 426 230 428 231 429 430 232 432 233 Harbour of Olga Herbaceous Vegetation on the Islands OF THE Amir .... Blagovyeshchexsk, ON the Amir Nikolayevsk ..... America Bay ..... The Possiet Inlets .... La Perouse Strait .... Sakhalin : Cape La JoxQviiRE . Mamia Rinzo Strait Sakhalin ...... AiNO GlKL ..... Sakhalin : the Dm Valley . Port of Sluraviov .... Density of the Siberian Population . Produce of East Siberian Sable-hunting from 1850 to 1855 Gold-washings in the Amur Basin . Vladivostok and the Eastern Bosporus PAOB 433 4 35 444 445 446 447 449 450 451 453 454 456 457 460 460 468 473 ■'VLKiiilVo.' ILLlNUli. HYPSOGRAPHIC Slum . Depth of the Sea, Z! Area ot" Depression. Iknm ro SieO Jtfrt. 6S60 a MOO Jvrt . Oror S80(> Hvt Btrla^- thf I.evv! ut' Less than SSOF&' rAe MedirerrajieHn- . MAP OF ASIA vatioix of tile Land above the Level of tke Sea. eeo to 1640 Feet 1640 JD S2liOFeet 3280 to eseo feet eseotoiewoTent Oxvr 16400 feet S-. CP LIMITED A UNIVERSAL GEOGEAPHY. ASIATIC RUSSIA. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS ON ASIA. F tlie great divisions of tlie globe Asia is by far the largest, com- prising almost exactly one-third of all the dry land, and exceeding in area even the double continent of the New World. It is one- third larger than Africa, and five times more extensive than Europe, which may in some respects be regarded as one of its peninsular appendages. Excluding the Caspian Sea and the eastern districts of the government of Perm, it has a total area of 16,776,000 square miles, and including Japan, the Philippines, and Malaysia, 17,930,000 square miles. But if it takes the foremost rank in size, it is far inferior even to Europe in the variety of its peninsular forms, in the development of its coast-line, in the extent to which the ocean inlets, and with them the marine climate, penetrate into the heart of the land ; nor does it, like Europe, present the great advantage of geographical unity. Divided by lofty tablelands and old sea-beds into absolutely distinct regions, it embraces vast rainless tracts, where the dryness of the atmosphere, the cold, and even the rarefaction of the air offer great difficulties to the migrations of its inhabitants, the more so that the opposite slopes are not connected together by natural valley routes like those of the Alps. Asia may thus have given birth to many local civilisations, but Europe alone could have inherited them, by their fusion raising them to a higher culture, in which all the peoples of the earth may one day take a part. Plateaux — Highlands and Lowlands. Compared with the other continents, Asia is essentially the region of table- lands. "Were the dry land to subside uniformly, all the other regions of the VOL. VI. B 2 ASIATIC RUSSIA. globe would have long disappeared, or would be indicated at most by narrow islands and peaks, while the lofty uplands of Central Asia, with the ranges skirting them, still rose above the surrounding waters. The plateaux of Asia, with the regions enclosed by them, form, so to say, a continent within a continent, differing in its climate, its flora, fauna, and inhabitants from the surrounding species. Rismg in some places to a height of 20,000 feet and upwards, these plateaux give to the whole of Asia a mean altitude greater than that of the other quarters of the globe. Humboldt calculated the mean of the Asiatic continent at 1,1G5 feet, which on more recent information Kriimmel raises to 1,6-50 feet, or one-third more than that of Europe. The Asiatic coast-Kne is more diversified than that of Africa or South America, especially on the south side, which is varied with large peninsulas, gulfs, and islands. But the central mass, including the plateaux and deserts, presents a great uniformity of outline. This region, limited southwards by the Himalayas, Dapsang, and Karakorum, almost everywhere presents other lofty ranges — in the west the numerous crests of the Pamir, in the north-west the Tian-shan, in the north the Altai, in the north-east and east the several chains separated by intervening river valleys. This upland tract, which includes Tibet, Kashgaria, and the Gobi Desert, presents the form of a vast trapeze gradually narrowing towards the west. Near its south-west angle there rises a lofty mountain nucleus formed by the junction of the Himalayas and Karakorum, and marking the centre of gravity of the whole continent. From this central mass, which is otherwise less elevated than many other Asiatic mountain systems, there radiate three vast plains and as many tablelands, disposed like the spokes of a wheel. The lowlands are the plain of Tatary in the north-west, the Tarim basin in the east, and in the south and south-east the depression furrowed by the Indus and Ganges; the highlands are the Pamir, Tibet, and Iran. The last named doubtless begins with the Hindu-Kush, a mountain range separating the Indus and Oxus valleys ; but this mass is of very small extent, and the uplands attached to it, while less extensive and less elevated, are more geometrical in their outlines than those of Tibet. The Iranian tableland, comprising most of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, forms a trapeze whose northern and southern sides are almost perfectly parallel. In the north-west this plateau is continued through Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor, by other lofty uplands overlooking the waters of the Euxine and Mediterranean. Thus nearly the whole of the continent is intersected by an elevated mass, forming in the west a single, in the east a double line, separating the northern and southern slopes, and leaving between them a few gateways only, through which passed the great historical routes of migration. In the centre of East Asia the Kuen-lun forms a continuation of the Hindu-Kush and more westerly systems. Though its crests fall short of the extreme height attained by those of the Himalayas, this range is on the whole the most elevated on the globe, and probably stretches eastwards across 42° of the meridian, or for a distance of 2,300 miles. It thus forms the eastern half of the continental axis, and is much PLATEAUX— HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS. ,8 more regular in outline than the western, running in the direction of Europe. The term " Diaphragm," restricted by the Greeks to the mountains on the north Iranian frontier, might eqvially well be extended to the whole parting line from the Eastern Kuen-lun to the Anatolian Taurus. This would thus correspond with the European diaphragm formed by the Pyrenees, Cevennes, Alps, and Balkans, and roughly continuing the line of the Asiatic " Great Divide." But in the European section, with its rare tablelands and convenient passes, how much more numerous are the gaps and breaks of continuity, facilitating the movements of migration from slope to slope ! The ranges skirting or towering above the Asiatic tablelands are mostly of striking regularity in their line of direction, and several consist of distinct ridges. B'ig. 1. — Plateatjx and Plains op Central Asia. Scale 1 : 21,000,000. 70- E,of Gr. Eegions atove 6,500 Feet. CD Regions below 6,500 Feet, . 300 Miles. all running parallel to each other. The Himalayas, culminating with Mount Everest, or Gaurisankar, " the Radiant," the highest point on the globe, develop along the northern frontier of India a perfect arc, whose focus might be in the very heart of Central Asia. The whole system, including both the Terai Hills of Hindustan, and the Dapsang, Karakorum, and other ranges of South Tibet, also runs in parallel curves north and south of the main range. In the same way the Kuen-lun comprises a great many ridges, all developing uniformly parallel lines. This well-marked parallelism recurs in most of the systems of Siberia, China, Cis and Transgangetic India, Irania, and Western Asia. Speaking generally, the main continental ranges may be said to run chiefly in two directions — east- south-east to west -north-west (Altai, Tarbagatai, Western Himalayas, Iranian b2 4 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Mountains, and Caucasus), and east to west, or rather east-north-east to west- soutli-west (Tian-shan, most of the Siberian chains, and those converging on the Pamir tableland). In many places the ranges forming curves with their convex sides facing southwards, by their intersections, give rise to entanglements and overlappings which disturb the general uniformity of the mountain systems. Thus the ridges forming a continuation of the Himalayas and Dapsang intersect, east of the Pamir, the regular chains running parallel to the Tian-shan and Altai. To these crossings are probably due the elevated masses of Kizil-yart and Tagharma, rising above the eastern edge of the Pamir, and from remote times Fig. 2. — Parallelism op the IJxis Asiatic Eaxges. According to Eichtbofcn for the Central Atiatjc Ranges. Scale 1 : 120,000 000. . 3.000 Miles. known to the Chinese as the Tsung-ling, or " Onion Mountains," from the wild garlic covering all their slopes. Out of these groups has been created the imaginary Bolor range, to which Humboldt had assigned a paramount importance in the orographic structure of Asia. Asia, like Europe, runs mainly east and west, a geographical fact which has had enormous influence on the development of mankind. While Europe and Asia occupy over half of the earth's circumference east and west, but a fourth part only taken north and south, the New "World, confined between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, stretches precisely in the inverse direction, across more than a third of the periphery from the Arctic nearly to the Antarctic Circle. The PLATEAUX— HIGHLANDS AND LO^TjANDS. & contrast is complete in the general disj)osition of the two continental groups, so that flora, fauna, and races all present analogous contrasts. In Asia the species are easily diffused from one extremity of the continent to the other by following the parallels of latitude, and taking advantage of the breaks of continuity, wherever the upland plateaux present an obstacle to their progress. From the plains of the Oxus to the Atlantic seaboard races have been variously displaced without meeting with climates greatly differing from their own. Hence the mutual influences 3. — Mount Evehest. and the elements of a common civilisation spread over vast spaces. The same cause secured the inevitable intermingling of all the European and Asiatic races, generally producing, in these two divisions of the Old World, a certain unity contrasting forcibly with the diversity characteristic of the western hemisphere. Here the migrations from north to south, or from south to north, were necessarily confined to much narrower limits, the ordinary obstacles presented by plateaux and highlands being intensified by those flowing from differences of latitude. Special 6 ASIATIC EUSSIA. civilisations were thus developed in favoured regions, -which had no more than a distant influence on each other, and the peoi^les remained almost everywhere •without coherence or any common bonds of union. For how could the Eskimo share in a common culture with the Prairie Indians, or these with the Mexicans, Mayas, Muiscas, Quichuas, Aymaras, Guaranis, Patagonians? It was even throuo'h the interference of Europe that the American aborigines were destined to receive the first impulse which caused them to become members of the common human family. Thanks to the position of the two continents stretching across the northern and southern hemispheres, Europeans of different climates — Portuguese, Spaniards, Italians, French, English, Scotch, Scandinavians — have been able to settle north and south of the equator in regions whose climates resembled their own, thus founding in the two zones a new England, a new Spain, and for a time a new France. Geological Formations — loNEors Forces. Still but partially explored as a whole, Asia remains even now to a large extent an imperfectly known region. The western section, Siberia, with some of the highlands separating it from the central plateau, India, and various tracts of Further India and China are the parts whose formations, disposed in the same order as in Europe, have already been studied and classed by the geologist. Crystalline rocks, old schists, palceozoic strata, are the chief constituents of the Siberian highlands. The Kuen-lun and the Karakorum seem also to belong to the primitive structure of the continent, whereas the Himalayas, while resting on crystalline masses, have been more recently upheaved dui-ing the secondary and tertiarj- periods. An idea of the tremendous disturbances that have here taken place may be had from the fact that the eocene strata near Leh have been raised' to a height of 11,650 feet. The tracts covered with molten lava occupy a great part of the periphery of the continent. Volcanic eminences occur in Siam and Pegu ; half of the Ganges peninsula is strewn with igneous rocks ; hot springs and mud volcanoes bubble up on the crests of argillaceous cones on the Mekran coast, and near the Helmand ; extinct craters are met in South-west Arabia and the Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb, as well as in Abyssinia, on the opposite coast ; the Hejaz also, and the Sinai peninsula, have their ancient lava streams ; in Asia Minor we meet with the burnt plains of Cappadocia, " Phlegrsean Fields" like those of Italy, the Hassan Dagh, Argseus, and other mountains of igneous origin ; in Armenia, Mounts Ararat, Aligoz, and Abul are of the same character ; and Elburz, giant of the Caucasus, is also an old volcano, while the two extremities of this range are marked by boiling mud and naphtha wells. Lastly, Demavend, rising majesti- cally above the southern shores of the Caspian, is a burning mountain, whose crater is not yet quite extinct. The northern ranges, which under various names separate Russian Turkestan and Siberia from the Chinese Empire, must be regarded as forming a section of GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS— IGNEOUS FORCES. 7 the vast, thoiigli frequently interrupted, ridge stretching from the southern extremity of Africa to that of the New World, and forming an immense crescent round the Indian and Pacific Oceans. But within this is another crescent, the "fiery circle" already traced by Leopold yon Buch. Starting from the volcanoes of New Zealand, it runs through the Philippines and along the Asiatic seaboard northwards, through Japan and the Kuriles, to the Aleutian archipelago and Alaska, whence it is continued in a south-easterly direction to the neighbourhood of Magellan Strait. In the Asiatic section of this crescent the active or barely quiescent volcanoes are reckoned by the hundred, though the only fiery cones still active on the mainland are those of Kamchatka, which connect the Kuriles with the Aleutian group. In some regions of the interior there also occur masses of scoria and lava streams, but the craters whence they flowed have been extinct either since the second half of the tertiary period, or at least for some centuries. The doubts formerly thrown on the reality of the active volcanoes mentioned in the Chinese records, and often referred to by Humboldt, have not yet been finally disposed of. The observations made by Stoliezka, who fancied he had traversed a volcanic district with basalt rocks in the distance, have been called in question. But west of Irkutsk the valley of a tributary of the Oka is filled by a vast lava stream, above which rise two craters. Other craters occur in the valley of the Irkut, and other lava streams farther east, in the basin of the Jida, near Selenghinsk, and on the Vitim plateau, near the north-east angle of Lake Baikal. Lavas and basalts have also flown from the neighbouring Okhotzk Mountains, while vestiges of recent eruptions occur in most of the terraced mountains of Siberia flanking the north-west side of the Mongolian plateaux. The suspension of the lava streams arises from the almost total disappearance of the saline lakes formerly filKng the great depressions of Central Asia. Never- theless there is a volcanic tract in the east of the continent south of Aigun, and 540 miles from the coast, where eruptions certainly took place in 1721 and 1722. The detailed reports of the Chinese savants brought to light by Vasilj'ev leave no doubt as to this fact, which should perhaps be explained by the number of lakes and swamps still found on the plateau. The oscillations which have given its present form to the continent are still going on with sufficient rapidity to enable observers to detect them along a great extent of the seaboard. Thus there can be scarcely any doubt that the northern shores of Siberia are slowly rising above the Arctic Ocean, for islands in the middle of the last century standing at some distance from the coast are now connected with it, not by sand-banks, but by the rocky bed of the sea. Similar phenomena have been observed in the ^gean and Black Seas, as well as along the east side of the Red Sea, as shown by the upheaved coral banks fringing the coast of Arabia. Traces of recent upheaval have likewise been noted on the shores of Baluchistan and Malabar, in Ceylon, British Burmah, East China, about the Amur delta, and in Kamchatka. Symptoms of subsidence, so much more easily recognised than the upward 8 ASIATIC EUSSIA motion, have hitherto been detected only at a very few points along the Asiatic seaboard. A part of the coast of Syria, the Great Western Runn between the Indus delta and Katch, the shores of Fo-kien, Ton-kin, and Cochin China, are at present subsiding. But the movement is most perceptible in the Laccadives and Maldives, where the atolls, or circular coral reefs, are slowly disappearing, notwithstanding the efforts of the busy polyps to keep them above the surface. The Chagos Bank has already been entirely engulfed. Climate — Diminution or Moisture. The great elevation of the Asiatic plateaux, with an atmosphere twice as rarefied as that of the lowlands, modifies to a remarkable extent the normal climate of the continent. Already as a whole far more extensive than Europe, Fig. 4. — The Han'-hai : A dried-vp Sea-bed. According to Eichthofen. Scale 1 : 32,000,000. A\^M^ E.oF 6K Sandy or Stony Desert. Upheaved Islands. Eecent Lacustrine Depressions. ^_— ^^^_ COO Miles and consequently less exposed to oceanic influences, it everywhere receives a proportionately less amount of moisture. But the central portions, being almost completely encircled by mountains which arrest the course of wet or snowy winds, receive far less humidity than the average rainfall of the rest of the continent. Still the maritime slopes of the plateaux and highlands do not retain all the moisture brought by the winds, so that torrents and even rivers furrow the slopes facing inland. Some of these streams ultimately find their way to the ocean, but most of them run dry either in the " cirques " where they rise, or at a lower elevation, or else in the deep and winding depression stretching south-west and north-east, between the Kuen-lun and the Tian-shan and Altai' mountain systems. At a time when these waters were more abundant the whole of the lower part of the great Asiatic depression was filled by a vast sea nearly as long, east and west. AEEAS OF INLAND DEAmAQE. 9 as the Mediterranean, but somewhat narrower. This dried-up sea, the Han-ha'i of the Chinese, seems to have stood about 5,000 feet above the actual sea-level, with a depth in some places of 3,000 feet. It occupied between Tibet and the Tian-shan range all the present Tarim basin, forming between the Tian-shan and Altai a ramifying gulf, which Richthofen has called the " Zungarian Basin." Eastwards it joined the Chamo basin through a strait studded with islands, all running in the same direction as the Tian-shan. At present this depression is divided by slight elevations into secondary cavities, each with its dried-up river beds and marshes, or saline incrustations, last remnants of what was once the Asiatic Mediterranean. In spite of the different elevations and latitudes, a singular imiformity is imparted to all these inland regions by the general sterility of the soil, the drjmess of the atmosphere, and the sudden vicissitudes of temperature. The rolling steppes of red earth in the Altai region ; the argillaceous plateaux, heavy and grey like a sea of congealed mud ; the less monotonous districts, varied here and there by a few protruding rocks; the deserts where crescent sandy dunes drive like mighty bUlows before the wind ; lastly, the stony plains strewn with frag- ments of quartz, chalcedony, jasper, carnelians, amethysts, released from their less solid and vanished matrices, weathered to dust and dispersed by the wind's — all these regions form a monotonous whole sublime in the very simjolicitj' of their Hnes. On these vast tablelands, crossed from horizon to horizon by long furrows like the ground-swell produced by the trade winds, caravans wind their way for days and weeks through a changeless scene of dreary majesty. Even the descent from the plateaux towards the deep depressions produces little change. The upland steppe, 3 miles above sea-level, the bed of the dried-up Mediterranean, the naked lands of Tibet and the Northern Gobi, separated from each other by 18° of latitude, present everywhere the same uniform aspect, broken only by a few oases, whose fresh-water streams, with their fringe of rich herbage, contrast forcibly with the bare mountain crags and steppes of the surrounding plateaux. The species of indigenous plants are nowhere numerous, and even by the running waters few trees are met except the poplar and willow. The nomad shep- herds, who drive their flocks from the lowlands to the uplands, 13,000 to 20,000 feet above sea-level, are little affected by the change. How different all this from the contrast presented in Europe by the luxuriant plains of Lombardy with the rugged Alpine heights ! Areas of Inland Drainage. The expression " Central Asia " is by the Russians wrongly applied to the part of the continent bordering on Europe, and lying within the same Aralo-Caspian depression as the portion of Russia watered by the Volga and its tributaries. Richthofen more correctly restricts this term to the Han-hai depression, and the Tibetan tablelands whose waters evaporate without forming streams. This part of the continent is, in fact, distinguished from all the surrounding regions by the 10 ASIATIC EUSSIA. circumstance that the detritus of the plateaux and highhmds caused by weathering and erosion remains in the basin itself, whereas it is elsewhere regularly carried away to the sea. The general movement of Central Asia proper is centripetal, that of the periphery centrifugal. But on the Pamir, forming the water-parting between China and the Caspian, there also occur closed cirques, whose waters do not reach the lowlands. Afghanistan and the Persian tableland have also their isolated basins, their land-locked lakes and marshes ; and Asia ISIinor itself presents saline lakes cut oif from all communication with the sea, notwithstanding the greater relative abundance of the rainfall in this sea-girt region. The plains of Syria, Arabia, and even India, also comprise vast spaces whose waters have no outlet towards the sea. Lastly, the Aralo-Caspian depression is now a land- locked basin, or rather forms a group of distinct basins like that of the Chinese Mediterranean, with which they seem to have formerly communicated through the Straits of Zungaria. Before the present geological epoch the Caspian, Aral, Balkash, and countless other lakes of smaller size were successively isolated like those of the Han-hai. But the two depressions of Western and Central Asia present a complete contrast, the one in the generally horizontal direction of its plains, the other in the great relief of the surrounding highlands. Taken collectively, all the Asiatic regions with no outlets seawards have ari area of perhaps 4,000,000 square miles, equal to that of the whole of Europe. This arid tract is connected through the Arabian peninsula with the zone of waterless deserts occupying nearly the whole of Africa between the Mediterranean seaboard and Sudan. Thus all the eastern hemisphere is crossed obliquely by a belt of arid regions, which barely fringes the south-east corner of Europe, and is divided in nearly equal proportions between Asia and Africa. Historic evidence shows that for the last four thousand years a large portion of Central Asia has been dried up. At one time the region of Lake Lob was occupied by a vast inland sea, the Li-ha'i, or " Western Sea," forming a con- siderable section of the ancient Han-hai. But as the process of desiccation progressed this term had to be transferred from the Tarim basin to the Caspian. Skilfully planned works of irrigation may have here and there created a few small oases, but the loss of habitable land has been enormous. Whole kingdoms have disappeared, many cities have been swallowed up in the sands, and certain tracts, formerly accessible to travellers, can no longer be visited, owing to the total absence of water and vegetation. Inhabited districts south of the Lob-nor, traversed by Marco Polo, are now inaccessible. Even beyond the large Asiatic basins on the South Siberian and Mongolian plateaux the same phenomenon of gradual absorption is perceptible, especially in the west. East of Lake Baikal the ancient sheets of water filling the cavities and terraces have been replaced by countless lakelets, tarns, marshes, forming an ever-changing watery labyrinth. From the Baikal to the Amur, from the Argun to the Khingan Mountains, the land is studded with these lacustrine bodies, recalling a time when the country exhibited the same aspect as the present Finland. East of the western Chinese closed basin the erosive action of runnins waters LIBRARY •OF THE INiVERSITY of ILLINOIS. i^ \ »ij ■'I AEEAS OF INLAND DEAINAGE. 11 lias excavated vast canons, revealing the geological structure of the old bed of the steppes. For a space far larger than the whole of France, North China is composed of a yellow clay, in some places 1,600 to 2,000 feet thick. In the province of Shen-si the atmosphere is nearly always charged with this dust, which gives a yellow hue to roads, houses, trees, fields, wayfarers. This "Yellow Land " (Hoang-tu) has given its name to the Yellow River (Hoang-ho), which bears its alluvium to the Yellow Sea (Hoang-hai). The clay is exactly like the loess of the Rhine and Danube valleys of alluvial or glacial origin. It Fig. 5. — Arid Regions axd Closed Basins op Asia. Coatpont ProjectioQ. Scale 1 : 120,000,000. IIO« Eof Gr. CPer •iii!;.|lj;Si'.;;i Desei-ts. Tracts with no outlet seawards. —.^^— 3,000 Miles. is not perceptibly stratified like aqueous deposits, nor does it contain fluvial shells, but only the remains of land molluscs. Throughout its whole thickness it is pierced by vertical holes variously ramified, evidently caused by the roots of countless plants, above which the dust of the soil has been successively accumu- lated. Through this porous soil the water percolates rapidly, except where roads have been formed, destroying the fibrous texture of the clay. According to Richthofen, this yellow earth is nothing more tban the soil of the steppes formerly deposited by the winds in the closed basins. 12 ASIATIC EUSSIA. The erosion of these vast accumiilations is effected by the infiltration of water. Wells are sunk, and uaderground galleries opened here and there, over which the clay vaults sink In. Thus are formed ravines with vertical walls ramifying in all directions. In many places the plateau seems perfectly horizontal ; yet it is cut up into so many fragments connected by narrow Isthmuses that the traveller, unaccompanied by a guide, would inevitably lose his way. The erosion Is incessantly advancing in the west, where nothing remains in many river valleys except isolated vertical masses assuming the form of walls, turreted castles, or keeps. Many of these blocks have even been converted Into strong- holds pierced with Invisible caverns, affording shelter to their occupants. By a remarkable contrast, this clay, formerly covering uninhabited wastes, now yields the heaviest crops in the irrigated districts. The yellow earth even serves as a manure for the neighbouring lands. The Tibetan plateaux would seem to be also composed of a similar clay, and there is reason to believe that geological pheno- mena are taking place corresponding exactly with those of the Upper Hoang-ho basin. In their aggregate all the geographical zones of Eastern Asia may be said to have shifted westwards. The ravines of the Yellow Land encroach on the plateaux, the sources of the Hoang-ho and its tributaries advance contiaually farther inland, the coast-line itself stretched formerly farther eastwards, and Japan and the Kuriles are probably the remains of the ancient Asiatic seaboard. Rivers flowing Seawards. On the northern slope of the continent the waters drain to the Arctic Ocean through the three mighty rivers Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, though they flow freely for a portion only of the year. In these northern latitudes the streams are ice-bound or blocked for eight or nine months, besides which their navigation is extremely tedious between frozen tundras destitute of towns, villages, or cultivated lands. The sea voj^ages from Europe to the mouths of the great Siberian rivers did not begin till about 1600 under the Czar Boris Grodunov, but a few years thereafter a decree of the Russian Government closed all trade with the Siberian coast, which was not reopened tiU 1869 by the Norwegians Carlsen and Johannesen. The Lena, however, was ascended for the first time in 1878 by a vessel accom- panying that of Nordenskjold. But though the communication Is now fully established between Europe and the Siberian estuaries, this result can have but little economic importance so long as these northern lands remain unpeopled. Cut off from the rest of the world by ice and the bleak wastes of the seaboard, the Siberian rivers, though flowing to the open sea, may be said to possess no more interest for man than if they drained to inland basins. Even the Amur, flowing under a more favourable climate eastwards to the Sea of Okhotzk, is ice-bound for six mouths in the year. Thus fully half of Asia, consisting either of Inland depressions or of valleys without easy outlets, is deprived of the advantages derived by most other regions from their running waters. From the Pet-chl-li to the Persian Gulf most of the coast lands are abundantly LIBRARY OF THE iVERSITY of ILLINOIS. THE UPPER YANQ-XSE-KIA2JG, EIVEES FLOWING SEAWAEDS. 13 watered, and some of their rivers are not only amongst the largest on the, globe, but are also amongst the most useful for trade and irrigation. Those flowing eastwards to the Pacific and southwards to the Indian Ocean are disposed in groups presenting striking analogies with each other. Thus the Hoang-bo and Yang-tze-kiang, rising in close proximity, flow first in opposite directions, and after describing vast curves, again approach each other so closely that their deltas have often been nearly united in the Shan-tung peninsula. The Me-khong, the chief river of Indo-China, and, according to Francis Garnier, Pig. 6. —Isobars in January. Scale 1 : 120,000,000. . 3,000 Miles. the largest in volume in Asia, rises in the same highlands, as do likewise the Salweu and Irawady. The Brahmaputra and Granges also have their sources near each other, but on opposite slopes- of the Himalayas, reuniting only in the common delta formed by their own alluvia. The Indus and Satlaj may likewise be regarded as twin streams, in their upper courses resembling the two last mentioned. Collectively these four rivers represent the four animals of the Hindu legend — elephant, stag, cow, and tiger — • which descend to the plains of India from the crest of the sacred moun- tain. The two streams flowing to the Persian Gulf, the Tigris and the Euphrates, also form an analogous group famous in legend and history. Lastly, VOL. VI. c 14 ASIATIC EUSSIA. the Sea of Ai-al, or inland basin of Turkestan, offers a like pkenomenon in the Oxus and Sir-darj-a, flowing parallel to each other, and at one time apparently united in a common delta. TexMpekature — Rainfall — Vegetation. The work of geographical exploration being still unfinished, pluviometrical observations are also necessarily incomplete, the direction and force of the winds and the amount of humidity having been gauged only in the regions accessible to European science, so that tracts as large as all Europe are stiU almost unknown Fig. 7. — Isobars in- July. Scale 1 : 120,000,000. 3,000 Miles. lands for the meteorologist. Not even a proximate estimate can be formed of the rainfall in the various Asiatic countries, though we know that in the aggregate the climate of Asia contrasts sharply with that of Europe. The latter, almost everywhere sea-girt, receives moisture at all seasons, the mean difference between the driest and wettest months oscillating between 1 and 3, whereas the great bulk of the Asiatic mainland is exposed to atmospheric strata far more regular in their action. East of the transitional zone bordering on Europe, the course of the -s\-inds and rains is marked by extreme uniformity. On all the southern and eastern seaboards the driest month yields fifty to sixty times less moisture than the rainy season. In winter the cold atmospheric strata become PENINSULAS. 15 concentrated in Eastern Siberia in the basin of the Lena and its tributaries. The maximum point of cold oscillates about Yerhhojansk, where the sky is always clear, the air bright. On some places snow falls so rarely that sleighs are unavailable for a great part of the winter. Then this cold air sets eastwards and southwards, bringing in its wake fine weather and dryness. In summer the reverse process takes place, as shown in Yoj-eikov's tentative chart. Siberia, where the barometer in winter marked the greatest pressure, is then exposed to the least atmospheric weight. The sea air is here concentrated from the Pacific and Indian Oceans, filling up the vacuum and bearing with it clouds and rain. Along all the sea- board from the Arabian Sea to the Gulf of Okhotzk the wet monsoon prevails during this period of atmospheric reflux to Eastern Siberia. Cis and Transgangetic India, with the neighbouring archipelagos of Malaysia and the Philippines, probably receive more than half of the whole continental rainfall. In this region, exposed by the barrier of the Himalayas and its eastern extensions to the full play of the tropical currents, the sea air arrives charged with vapours, which are precipitated at the slightest contact with the upland slopes. In summer the southern portion of the continent, having a much higher temperature than the sea, attracts the aerial masses resting on the Indian Ocean, thus ^producing the southern monsoon. Saturated with the moisture arising from the sea as from a seething caldron, this monsoon discharges torrential downpours on the Malabar and Transgangetic coasts, after which it strikes against the advanced Himalayan spurs and other ranges flanking the southern border of the Chinese tablelands. The moist clouds, thus arrested by the lower chains, show that the marine breezes seldom rise higher than from 5,000 to 6,500 feet. But here the tropical rains, real deluges, exceed anything that the inhabitants of the temperate zone have any experience of. Annual rainfalls of 20, 30, and 40 feet are by no means rare in various parts of India, and in the Kassia HiUs, overlooking the course of the Lower Brahmaputra, it amounts to 52 feet. Certain Indian valleys have received in one downpour as much water as many French valleys in a twelvemonth. Peninsulas. Thanks to their varied coast-Hne and reliefs, the regions of Southern Asia, Irania and Arabia alone excepted, present a greater diversity of aspects than the other parts of the continent. The two great peninsulas of India and Indo-China, with the neighbouring archipelagos, are probably unequalled in the richness of their vegetation, the splendour of flower and foliage, and the beauty of the animal species. These are the enchanted isles of the Arab legends, where the sands sparkle with rubies and sapphires, where the trees shed strength and health-giving perfumes, where the birds with their diamond pltmiage speak with a wisdom unknown to the inhabitants. Many of these islands, gems set in a blue tea, lie nevertheless within the zones of typhoons, earthquakes, and fierce volcanic action. But the vapour- charged sea breezes soon repair the disasters of these agencies, quickly reviving the magnificence of their tropical vegetation. c 2 16 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Comparing continents with continents, the Swede Torbern Bergmann remarked in the last century that the large peninsulas, such as Arabia, Hindostan, and Indo-China, nearly all face southwards. These correspond exactly with the Ilollcnic, Italic, and Iberian peninsulas in Europe, and to a less degree with those of Lower California and Florida in the New T7orld, where the intermediate peninsula has been transformed to an isthmus by the upheaval of the laud in Central America. rig. 8. — Curves of the Eastern Asiatic Seaboard axd Isla>;ds. Scale 1 ; 00,000,000. C. Perron to 810 SIO Fathoms and Fathoms. upwards. The peninsulas of the two continents of the eastern hemisphere, taken in their geographical order, are also distinguished by special and analogous features. Thus Arabia, nearly quadrangular In form, is another Spain in the solidity of its contour and the monotony of its coast-line. India, like Italy, presents more varied outlines, and has a large Island at Its southern extremity. Lastly, Indo-China and Greece are both alike washed by seas studded with countless islands and Islets. These European and Asiatic archipelagos, like the corresponding Antilles in America, PENINSULAS. 17 have all tlieir igneous phenomena, their craters of molten lava — more numerous, however, in Asia than elsewhere. Important geological changes are now taking place in this partially upheaved region, which may in its aggregate be regarded as a sort of isthmus between Asia and Australia. Nevertheless Wallace has noted a sharp line of separation between these two worlds, easily recognised by the difference in the vegetable and animal species peopling the lands situated on either side of this line. In the volcanic chain of the Southern Sundas, Bali belongs to Fig. 9. — Density of the Asiatic Populations. According to Bebm and Ilanemaim. — Coatpont Projection. Scale 1 : 120,000,000, ^^W^ \ 110" Eof br 'C. Perron □ Per Square Mile. TJninhabited.' Under 2. 2 to 18. 18 to 36. 36 to 72. 72 to 144. 144 to 288. 28S and upwjirds. -^^— ^-__-^.^^__^— ^___ 3,000 Miles. the Asiatic, while Lombok, only 24 miles distant, already forms part of the Australian group. Like the southern, the eastern Asiatic seaboard has also its three peninsulas stretching southwards — Kamchatka, Corea, and Sakhalin — the last apparently an island, but really a peninsula, being connected with the Siberian coast by a bank inaccessible to large vessels. Though possibly mere coincidences, these facts are more probably the result of a Liav regulating the distribution of dry land, the existence of which can scarcely be questioned, if its explanation must still remain an unsolved problem. 18 ASIATIC RUSSIA. No less remarkable geographical analogies occur in the south-eastern archi- pelago. Thus Sumatra is obviously a peninsula of Malacca, connected -with the mainland by the partly submerged isthmus of the Nicobar and y\jidaman groups. SeA-eral of the Malay Islands, Sumatra itself included, are disposed in regular order on openings in the crust of the earth, through which they communicate with an underground lava sea. But the distinctive feature presented by all these insular groups consists in their coast-lines forming a succession of segments of circles. From the north-west extremity of Sumatra to Flores the shores facing the Indian Ocean are developed in the form of a regular arc, and the same is true of Borneo, Palavan, Luzon, and Formosa. The east coast of Corea begins a third curve, which is continued towards the Liu-khieu Islands, while Japan and Sakhalin form a fourth, which in the island of Yesso intersects a fifth, sweeping through the Kuriles along the east side of Kamchatka. Lastly, the chain of the Aleutians, resting on a Kamchatka headland, stretches like a barrier across Bering Strait to Alaska. The radii of these insular curves vary in mean length from 1,100 to 1,200 miles, and the continental seaboard facing them is also disposed in large circular lines. The coasts of Siberia beyond the Amur, the Chinese seaboard between the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Ton-kin, that of Cochin China as far as the Me-khong delta, are all traced as if by the compass. Were the level of the Pacific to be raised from 1,600 to 2,000 feet, the Sikhota-Alin coast range, Russian Manchuria, would be changed to an archipelago like that of Japan, and the lower valley of the Amur and Sungari would be transformed to a sea, in its outlines resembling that of the Kuriles. In the west the Khingan range also develops a curve parallel to the sweep of the Kuriles, though composed of older rocks. Inhabitants — Culture. About two-thirds of the whole population of the globe are probably concen- trated in Asia ; but these multitudes are far from being evenlj- distributed over its surface. They are disposed according to the conditions of soil and climate, and, speaking generally, their density may be said to be in proportion to the abundance of the rainfall. Over one-tenth of the land, consisting of sands, rocks, or frozen tablelands, is absolutely uninhabited, and some of these tracts are never even traversed by caravans. In four-fifths of the surface the number of inhabitants scarcely reaches 40 per square mile. But in the remaining fifth, comprising India, parts of Indo-China, the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho basins, Japan, Luzon, and China, the population is dense enough to give Asia a decided numerical preponderance over the other continents. More than half of mankind are grouped in Southern and Eastern Asia within a space less than one-sixth of the dry land. Thus one of the extremities of Asia presents in this respect a phenomenon analogous to what is witnessed in AYestern Europe at the other extremity of the Old World. Isolated from each other by plateaux, lofty ranges, or waterless wastes, the Asiatic populations have naturally remained far more distinct than those of Europe. Whatever be the origins, rivalries, or antagonisms of the European INHABITANTS— CULTUEE. 19 nations, they have none the less the full consciousness of belonging to the same human family, and in many places the interminglings of Iberians and Celts, of Slavs and Finns, of Turks and Albanians, have effaced all primitive differences. Eut crossings are far from having produced a similar racial uniformity in Asia. Doubtless in the north an ethnical fusion has taken place between many Turki and Mongolian tribes, in the west between Semites and Iranians. Nor are there any Fig. 10. — DlSTKIBUTION OF THE ASIATIC RACES, ficale 1 : 120,000,000. 50' IIO* ,E.of Gr, ^ m Aryans. Mongolians. Tatars. Finno- Tibetans. Chinese, Semites. Dravidians, Ugiians. Japanese, &c. Caucasians. EsMmo. Africans. Malays. Papuans. 3,000 Miles. longer to be foimd completely homogeneous races, except, perhaps, in the Anda- man Islands and Yesso. Yet what striking contrasts are still to be seen in the greater part of the continent ! The various so-called " Turanian " or Finno-Tataric races mostly form distinct groups, completely separated from the other races in their mental qualities and social habits. In the north the Samoyedes, Ostyaks, and other Siberian tribes form one of the most easily recognised subdivisions. In the east Manchus and Tung uses, in the west Kirghiz and Tatars, represent the 20 ASLVTIC ETJSSIA. Tuikl stock. The Mongolians and Buriats of the centre are regarded as the typical branch of the Mongol, or Yellow familj'. On the southern plateaux the Tibetans also form a distinct group, while the basins of the eastern rivers are occupied by the more or less mixed Chinese nation, surpassing all others in numbers, and distinguished from them by well-marked moral and mental features. In the south-east the Malays constitute another division of mankind, which in some of the Sunda Islands and Malacca exhibits characteristics contrasting with those of all the Asiatic peoples. The Arabs also, who with the Jews form the Semitic fomily, have maintained the primitive purity of their type in the interior of the south-western peninsula. Lastly, the races of India have, so to say, followed each other in successive layers. Although living in the same land, the various ethnical groups, divided into hostile castes, have been developed side by side, while keeping aloof from aU physical or social intermixture. The sacred poems of the Hindus relate how the noble races had to struggle with the low-caste tribes, people of black complexion and flat nose, and even with the Anasikas, demons and monkevs. The struggle has ceased, but the law of caste has raised a brazen barrier between these primeval conflicting elements. Speaking generally, the thickly peopled southern and eastern regions may be said to be occupied by cultured races, while the more desert northern tracts were till recently the exclusive domain of savage tribes, the intervening plains and plateaux being held by nomad peoples at the transitional or barbarous stage of civilisation. Yet thi'ough a strange, though by no means solitary delusion, the lofty Central Asiatic highlands have often been described in legends as the cradle of mankind, and the influence of these childlike traditions has been felt in many grave scientific works. It seemed natural that these cloud-eapped peaks — abode of the gods and immortals — should also be the first home of man created by them, and that the migrations of the tribes should follow the course of the streams, descending to the lowlands from the pure sources springing amidst eternal snows. The Hindus, gazing northwards on the glittering crests of Mount Meru, fancied that here the first rays of light had beamed on their forefathers. The Armenian Ararat, with its snowy cone sweeping a boundless horizon of hills and plains, was also for many peoples the eminence on which the universal father of mortals had first set his foot. Lastly, the Pamir, well named the "Hoof of the World," forming the great divide between east and west, was held sacred as the birthplace of the Aryan tribes, who spread thence over "Western Asia and Europe. Thus have these uninhabited iipland wastes conie to be regarded as the cradle of the countless multitudes whica, since the appearance of the Aryan race, have dwelt west of the Pamir. But these delusions are henceforth dispelled, and the peoples of the earth have ceased to discover in the regions of perpetual snow the first trace of their ancestors. The geography of traditions and legends is doubtless of great importance, often furnishing valuable hints to the historian ; but, if taken as an exclusive guide, it could lead to nothing but error. The civilisation of modern Europe cannot have had its rise in the arid upland plateaux and desert valleys of Central Asia. Apart INHABITANTS— CULTURE. 21 from what has been developed on the spot, most of its elements must be traced to the Nile basin, to the Asiatic coast lands, Asia Minor, Syria, Babylonia, Arabia, Persia, India, and China. All the languages of Europe, except Basque, are of Asiatic origin, and all, whether introduced by the Aryans, Finns, or Tatars, bear witness in their vocabularies to the multiplicity of objects derived from the Eastern civilisations. In prehistoric times especially Asiatic influences must have been most felt by the stiU. barbarous tribes of Europe. Previous to the national and spontaneous development of independent Hellenic culture, the first impulses had come from Asia, where the more advanced peoples had already worked out complete systems of culture. Here were invented the arts of copper casting, of blending the metals into useful alloys, of smelting iron, working in gold and silver. Languages, religions, customs, implements, domestic animals, all came from the East. But after Europe had achieved its first triumph over Asia by the overthrow of Troy, Hellenic culture made rapid progress in the western peninsulas of Asia Minor as well as in Greece itself. Europe began, so to saj', east of the iEgeau Sea, where the Ionian cities received and transmitted to posterity the inheritance of knowledoe bequeathed to them by the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Medes, and Persians. The very name of Asia seems to be of Hellenic origin, restricted at first to a small portion of the Ionian seaboard, and afterwards sjDread to the Anatolian peninsula and the whole continent. By an analogous phenomenon the name of a small tribe dwelling on the south coast of the Mediterranean was first extended to a Libyan province, and then to all Africa. Eeligions. But even long after the great centres of civilisation had been shifted from the Mesopotamian regions westwards to Athens and Ivome, the religion destined gradually to spread over the West took its rise in an obscure hamlet by the shores of Lake Tiberias. The Arab writers had already observed in mediteval times that all the great religions, except Buddhism, had their origin in Western Asia, which has given birth to Judaism, the Zoroastrian, Christian, and Mohammedan worships, which, like rhythmical waves of thought, here succeeded each other at regular intervals of about six hundred years. All these systems have otherwise a strong family likeness ; all have been alike influenced by outward surroundings, which in their essential features present striking analogies from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Red Sea. Notwithstanding minor differences, the wilder- nesses of Arabia, Palestine, Chaldcea, and Persia have the same aspect of monotonous grandeur. Buddhism also attempted to penetrate westwards, and traces of its passage are still preserved in the upland valley of Bamian, the main highway of intercourse in former times between India and Western Asia. On this historic spot, 8,600 feet above the sea, in the Hindu-Kush, a Buddhist king ruling over the Ujaper Oxus basin caused two colossal statues to be hewn in the solid rock, pierced Avith niches giving access to pilgrims. Other religious monuments mark the track of Buddhism 22 ASIATIC ETJSSIA. towards the north and north-west. But it failed to secure a permanent footing anywhere west of the Pamir and Tian-shan. But Mongols, Chinese, and Tibetans received the Indian missionaries, and, though misunderstanding their doctrine, they at least accepted its name, repeated its formulae, and practised its rites. At present Buddhism, mingled with divers superstitions, prevails in China, Tibet, Japan, Mongolia, amongst numerous tribes about Lake Baikal, and even in Europe on the shores of the Caspian. In point of numbers it takes the foremost rank amongst the religions of the earth, while geographically Christianity has become the most Fig. 11. — Chief EEucioys of Cextkai. Asia. Scale 1 : 66,000.™X). C PerroD w. m ChriBHans. Mohammedans. Bialunans. Buddhists. Ehamanists. i'agans. 1,200 HQes. widelj' diffused. In Asia the influence of the latter is Kmited to the Armenians, Georgians, Nestorians, Maronites, Greeks of Asia Minor, the evangelized tribes of Asiatic Russia, a few Chinese, Japanese, and Indians, besides European immi- grants and Eurasians. But elsewhere it has become the creed of all the civilised nations of Europe, America, South Africa, and Australasia. Mohammedanism also has spread over a vast domain, stretching mainly south and east of the Christian area. Arabia, its original home, Palestine, nearly all Western Asia as far as the Hindu-Kush, belong to the various Moslem sects. In India the followers of the Prophet are more numerous and influential than elsewhere, while their domain has HISTOEIC RETROSPECT— MIGRATIONS. 23 also been extended to China and Malaysia. North Africa has also been converted by the Arabs, and Islam is rapidly developing in Sudan, and even approach- ing the Guinea coast. In Europe it is practised only by the Osmanli, Aruauts, Pomaks, and Bosnians of the Balkan peninsula, and by the Tatars and other non- Aryan races of Russia. In the south it has been extirpated by fire and sword, though not before it had exercised a considerable influence on European civilisa- tion. The Spanish Moors were for some time the teachers of the Western nations, nor were the arts and sciences unaflfected by the warfare carried on for two centuries by the Crusaders against the Saracens and Turks for the possession of the Holy Land. Historic Retrospect — Migrations. Seen from an elevated standpoint, the great drama of universal history resolves itself into endless struggles, with varying issues, between Europe and Asia. After the initial Asiatic movement a European reaction began in the legendary times which are recalled by the myths of the Argonautic expedition. But the European period begins probably with the first great defeat of Asia, when the free citizens of Athens triumphed over the hosts of Darius and Xerxes. Henceforth the spirit of Western civilisation stood out in bold contrast with that of the East. Greece and the heirs of her greatness understood that the true object of life is to uphold and expand freedom, even at the cost of life itself. But after the glorious struggle ending with the memorable victories of Marathon and Salamis, Europe failed to maintain her rising superiority. Alexander no doubt in a few years overran Asia to the Indus; but his Macedonian followers ended by becoming Asiatics themselves, leaving successors who sought to continue the work of Darius and Xerxes by attaching Greece to Asia. Even Rome accepted her religion from Palestine, and the seat of empire was shifted to the Bosporus. And while the cultured peoples of the South, the Aryans and Semites, were thus exercising a moral influence on the West, the barbarous tribes of Eastern Europe and of Asia contributed bj^ wholesale migrations to modify the races, if not of the West, at least those of the Sarmatian plains. After the fall of the Roman Empire the eastern continent again acquired an ascendancj% which lasted for a period of a thousand years. In the north the Alans, Avars, Huns, Pecheneghs, Kumans, Magyars, and other Finns, followed later on by Tatars and Mongolians, penetrated across the steppe lands westwards, and one of those nations founded a state within the circuit of the Carpathians which still flourishes. In the south the Arabs, following the southern shores of the Mediterranean, reached the very heart of Gaul, while between these two great movements the Turks seized the Balkan peninsula, and made the second Rome, the city of Constantino, the capital of their empire. For a time the European world threatened to be swallowed up in the advancing tide of Eastern supremacy. One of the most astounding phenomena of history is the sudden rise in the thirteenth century of the Mongolian Empire, the largest that ever existed. The strictljr nomadic population of the East can scarcely be estimated at more than four or five millions, and the fighting element can at no time have exceeded half a 24 • ASIATIC EUSSIA. million in these regions. Tbe Mongolian hordes could never of themselves alone have made up those vast hosts spoken of in the mediajval chronicles. The alarm and terror of the vanquished multiplied in imagination the number of the conquerors, and in the popular fancy the East seemed to be an officina gentium peopled by vast multitudes, whereas the more favoured regions of the West were really far more populous. The Mongolian conquests were, in fact, achieved by small armies moving quickly from place to place with a unity of purpose, and falling suddenly on enemies too scattered or dismayed to offer an effectual resistance. The detachment sent bj' Jenghis Khan to Samarkand in pursuit of Sultan Ala- ed-din consisted of no more than 20,000 men, and for three years these warriors triumphantly ovei-ran Persia, Khorassan, Armenia, Georgia, the Caucasus, the Crimea, and the plains of the Volga before returning to their master. The Mongols easily reached China by descending from their barren tablelands through the many valleys watered by the tributaries of the Hoang-ho. But towards the west there was but one route, which all could not reach. During the great displacements of populations vast numbers were crowded into Ivashgaria, where they found themselves enclosed by lofty ranges inaccessible to armies. But the bulk of the migratory tribes followed the traditional route along the southern slopes of the Altai, whence they swept over Western Siberia in two streams, one proceeding westwards to Europe, the other southwards to Persia and India. None of these hordes ever returned to their native pastures, except a few of the Astrakhan Kalmuks, who attempted in 1770 to escape from Russian rule to their ancestral homes at the foot of the Altai. And now silence reigns in the restless regions which were once the centre of the Mongolian Empire, and the highway of the Altai is a solitude. The turbulent populations formerly' dwelling on the northern frontier of China have been pacified largely through the policy which, by the propagation of Lamaism in Mongolia, has changed a population of warriors into a community of monks. But the traces of the old migrations have not been effaced. The flora and fauna of the two continents have become intermingled, while the peoples them- selves overlap and encroach on each other at various points. Samoyedes and Lapps may still be regarded as Asiatics, and many even of the Mordvinians, Chiivashes, and Cheremissians in Central Russia are more akin in their habits to the remote Siberian Ostyaks than to the surrounding Russian populations. Many Bashkirs, Tatars, Kirghiz, and Kalmuks are also settled in Europe, while, on the other hand, European nations have penetrated far into Asia. Compact Slav communities are settled in Transcaucasia, and even on the Pacific seaboard, while the Hellenes arc more numerous in Anatolia than the Osmanli in the Balkan peninsula. European Influences. Formerly the civilising, the Asiatics now represent the barbarous element in the presence of the Europeans, whose culture, with all its shortcomings, may still be regarded as the focus of education for the Eastern world. The general move- PEOGEESS OF DISCOVEEY. 25 ment of civilisation has tLus been reversed, and intellectual life now radiates from Europe to the remotest corners of the cartli. Wherever the European explorers first settled they doubtless began their civilising work by massacring, enslaving, or otherwise debasing the natives. But the beneficial influences of superior races have ever commenced by mutual hatred, mistrust, and antagonism. The conflicting elements everywhere contend for the mastery before they awaken to the conviction that all alike are members of the same human family. Like the civilising action of Asia in former times, that of Europe spread eastwards first from the seaboard. The Portuguese led the way by establishing themselves on the shores of both India and Malaysia ; and these were followed successively by the Spaniards, Dutch, English, and French, who founded factories or forts on the islands and coasts of the same regions. At present Cyprus is an English island, while Asia Minor is at least in theory under the protectorate of Great Britain, whoso agents are also establishing her sujjremacy over Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and possibly even over Persia. Several points on the Arabian and Persian seaboards belong, directly or indirectly, to England, which guards the waters of the Persian Gulf, and reigns as undisputed mistress over India, Ceylon, and part of Indo-China. A large portion of Further India is under French rule, while Holland, England, and Spain, share with a few native sultans the possession of the Eastern Archipelago. Of all the Asiatic nations Japan has been most rapidly transformed under European influences, and in the Cliinese seaports whole quarters are already occupied by European or American trading communities. Lastly, all the northern division of the continent owns the sway of Russia, whose Cossack pioneers have since the close of the sixteenth century brought the whole of Siberia under the sceptre of the Czar. Thus about one-half the area and one-third the population of Asia belong henceforth politically to Europe, as appears from the subjoined table of the direct and indirect Asiatic possessions of the various European states : — Area in Sq- Miles. ropulation. Asiatic Russia and Dependencies 0,730,000 17,000,000 British PossESsions and Dependencies in Asia . . 2,772,000 218,500,000 Dutch 690,000 26,600,000 French 50,200 2,700,000 Spanish 118,200 7,450,000 Portuguese 7,200 770,600 Total Asia subject to Europe .... 10,385,600 313,080,000 From the settlements on the seaboard the political conquests and commercial relations of the West have advanced with ever-increasing rapidity towards the interior, although the work of scientific discovery is still far from complete. There are extensive regions of Central Asia scarcely visited except by solitary explorers, while even in the parts already surveyed many obscure problems remain still to be solved. Progress of Discovery. The ancients, whose navigators never ventured to sail beyond the Indian waters to China, carried on a tedious overland traffic with that country by caravan 2fi ASIATIC RUSSIA. routes, wliicli remained unknown to the Western conquerors. It will be scarcely- possible to discover the exact highway followed by the Greek traders ; but Bactra being at that time the great emporium, the route indicated by Ptolemy most probably penetrated eastwards through the Upper Oxus valley across the southern portion of the Pamir, thence descending by one of the head-streams of the CEchardes (Tarim) to the present basin of Kashgaria. Attempts have even been made to identify the Tash-Kurgan, which lies on a tributary of the Yarkand in Sarikol, with the " Stone Tower " spoken of by the old traders. At the beginning of the Christian era, when their military power was most flourishing, the Chinese subdued Western Tatary, and while their armies were crossing the Tian-shan passes, their merchants and pilgrims were traversing the rougher routes over the " Eoof of the World." Hwcn-T'sang, the most famous of these pilgrims, describes his journeys with sufiBcient minuteness to enable us to follow his footsteps across the Pamir and the Upper Oxus valley. Marco Polo also, after leaving Eactra (Balkh), followed a route differing little from that of his Greek predecessors, and nmniug north-east across "the plain of the Pamier, which they say is the highest place in the world." Beyond Yarkand he skirted the Gobi district on the south, entering China proper about the sources of the Hoang-ho. This journey of Marco Polo across the continent from west to east still remains unrivalled after a lapse of six hundred j^ears. As an imperial functionary he also visited most of the Chinese provinces and East Tibet, penetrating into Burmah through the still little- known regions separating Yun-nan from Indo-China. By his enthusiastic account of China, its great cities and eastern islands, he contributed more than any other traveller to stimulate the love of enterprise, and by him was conjured up the phantom pursued by Columbus across the western waters to the goal of a new world. When Marco Polo was making his way over the Pamir, another more northern route to Mongolia had already been traversed by numerous merchants, missionaries, and cnvoj's. In the middle of the thirteenth century the centre of gravity^ of the Mongol Empire lay about the neighbourhood of the Altai. Hence the main commercial highway naturally converged on Karakorum, capital of the state, and this was the road already followed by the Mongol and Tatar hordes north of the Tian-shan, and along the valley of the Sir-darya. It was also traversed by Plan do Carpin and Eubruk, envoy of Louis IX. Western adventurers now crowded round the imperial tent, and so numerous were the relations of the West with the great Eastern potentate that there was question of founding a chair of the Mongolian language in the Paris Sorbonne. But the empire was soon broken up ; Karakorum ceased to be a capital, and its ruins were forgotten in the sands. Still the route to China along the northern slopes of the Tian-shan, and through Zungaria, remained open to trade. Pcgolotti and others followed it in the fourteenth century, and it might have ultimately acquired real commercial importance, had the attention of the Western nations not been diverted to the great oceanic discoveries round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and across the Atlantic to the New World. The Ions and danserous highways of Tatary, Zungaria, and Mongolia were now forsaken, and the work of PEOGEESS OF DISCOVEEY. 27 Marco Polo has been resumed only in our days. But it is being now prosecuted by many explorers armed witb. the resources of science, and j)rotected by the respect with which the natives have learnt to regard the Western nations. From year to year the space still remaining to bo explored becomes narrower ; the main features of the mysterious Pamir are already determined ; Northern and Western China have been traversed in every direction. But certain Tibetan districts still remain a terra incognita, pending the exploration of which many important geographical problems must remain unsolved. Asia may still be said to lack Fig. 12. — Chief Itineraries of Central Asia. Pcalc 1 : 120,000,000. — Silk Route. ..>» Chinese in fifth cenUny. n-wen-T'sang. — Arabs. — Nicolo and M;iirco Polo. — • Marco Polo. C Perj-or> Pundits. Gabet. t. ..II JTrajicis Gamier. ...».. McCarthy. . -. Bichthofen. „ — „. Elias, 1872. Main Ti-ade Route according lo Pcgoletti, 1340, — •— Sosnovski. Forsyth, 1870. Cooper. _, — Prjeviilski. =....... Annand D,iTid. • Schlagintweit. 3,000 Miles. geographical unity in its relations with the history of man ; for the interior remains but partially known, while the movements of population and commerce continue still to be made by the seaward routes and coast regions. The progress of trade and discovery must ultimately give to Asia the unity it now lacks, and the result must be a general shifting of equilibrium throughout the whole world. At no distant day the European railway sj'stcm will be continued eastwards, connecting the cities of the Bosporus with those of India, and enabling goods to be forwarded without break from the Vistula to the Indus basin. Travellers will then flock to those still unknown regions of Eastern Tibet, 28 ASIATIC RUSSIA. tlie scene of some of the grandest phenomena on the globe. The teeming populations of India and China will then also enter into direct relations with each other, and the trade routes of Calcutta and Shanghai will meet midway between those emporiiims. All these economic revolutions must revive many cities decayed, or even vanished, since the overland routes were abandoned for the safer and easier oceanic highways. Large cities cannot fail again to spring up in Bactriana and Sogdiaua, where the main road between Central Europe and India will cross that leading to Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. But besides the new centres of population that must arise in the West, others will be founded in Central Asia, the rallying-points of Chinese and Russians, of the Hindu and European traders. But the precise locality of these new marts must be determined by political as well as by climatic and other physical considerations, for Asia is a battle-field which is destined soon to witness a decisive struggle in the history of mankind. Political Rivalries. The influence of Europe on the Asiatic populations is steadily increasing, so that the vast eastern continent would seem in some respects to be becoming more and more a simple dependency of its little western peninsula. The power of Europe is represented in Asia mainly by the two rival states, England and Russia, differing profoundly from each other in their traditions, political situation, and interests. Russia rules in the northern, England in the southern zone, and many small intermediate peoples struggling to maintain their independence gravitate necessarily to the orbits of these great states. lu the extreme east, Japan, while preserving its political autonomy, is striving to rival the European peoples in the form of its administrative system. But the Chinese still cling to their individual nationality. Their power has been but little afiected by the recent invasions and treaties with foreign states, and the empire is already beginning to resist further aggression by the inert force of its teeming populations. But these countless masses have also the strength imparted by industry, toil, and patience, while common sense, methodic habits, unflagging tenacity, render them formidable competitors in the race. Compared with the Hindus, the Chinese have the paramount advantage derived from a thorough mixture of races and national cohesion. Their temperate habits also enable them to become acclimatized under the most varied climes. They are an enduring race, which acquires fresh vitality from oppression and defeat. Hence England and Russia are not the only rivals for supremacy in Asia. Nay, more, the Chinese race cannot fail to clash with the peoples of Europe and North America on the fundamental questions of culture and social habits, before taking an active and intelligent part with them in the work of human progress. This conflict must needs retard the development of mankind until its course be again resumed by a final reconciliation of the ideas common to both elements. The inevitable struggle between these three rival states is still retarded by I POLITICAL EIYALEIES. 29 the vast extent of the partly desert lands separating them. If China is easily accessible by sea, she is at least completely enclosed landwards. Towards Hussian Siberia she has far more solitudes than peopled regions, and here also Russia, having but few colonies, is incapable of exercising any political pressure on China. Between the " Flowery Land " and British India the zone of separation is formed not by solitudes, but by highlands still scarcely explored. In the west there is still a considerable tract intervening between Russian territory and India, and here the native element has hitherto maintained a certain political independence. In both Fig. 13. — ErEOPEAX Ixflcence in Asia. Scale 1 : 120,0On.O(Vi. '--Ar-' '•. E.of Gr. CPerxofl ^ ^ Bnssian FossessLOns. Subject to Russian Influence. Britisli Possessions. Subject to Britisli Influence. ■ 3,000 Miles. directions the Turkomans and Afghans have till recently presented a bold front to the Russian and English iuvaders, who are endeavouring to seize the strategic points, of their territory. Influential statesmen have even declared, whether sincerely or not, that this intermediate zone should be permanently respected by the two rival powers, and that the advanced sentinels of British India and Russian Turkestan run little risk of soon meeting on some pass of the Hindu- Kush, or about the sources of the ilurghab. From the military point of view China is still far inferior to the two other VOL. VI. D 30 ASIATIC EUSSIA. great Asiatic powers. Althougli she has had the foresight to utilise the last twenty years of peace to reorganize her army, replenish her arsenals, cast guns, build ironclads, she is scarcely yet strong enough to contend with any European power beyond her own limits. She is also still largely enslaved to official etiquette and deep-rooted traditions, preventing her from freely entering on the new career towards which she is impelled by the course of events. Nev«rtheless both Government and people are at one in the determination to prevent foreigners from monopolizing the wealth and trade of the country. While receiving them in compliance with the terms of the treaties, the Chinese have contrived to protect their own interests, and while slowly accepting new ideas, they prefer to be their own teachers in applying them to economical purposes. From the material point of view they also possess the strength inherent in numbers. In Manchuria, in Formosa, and in the central regions they are gradually acquiring the land by cultivation, and even in many foreign countries they have attained a decided preponderance. From their over-peopled native land they arc already overflowing into Further India, Malaysia, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and the United States. On the other hand, England is unable to contend by means of compact masses for the supremacy in Asia. In the very centre of her power she has nothing to depend upon beyond her European troops and native mercenaries. Still the territory already acquired gives her a tremendous defensive and aggressive power. She not only raises formidable armies in an empire containing one-sixth of the population of the globe, but also a sufficient revenue to be independent of the resources of the home country. The English cannot, of course, reel on the sympathy of their subjects, whom they probably despise too much to expect it of them. The time must also doubtless come, though it may be still remote, when the Hindus will develop a national life and get rid of their foreign masters. Meanwhile the English tenure is far more secure than before the mutiny of 1857, although the majority of the army is composed of sepoys, and all the lower functions of the administration are in the hands either of natives or of " Eurasians ; " that is, half-caste Hindus and Europeans. The secret of England's strength lies in the fact that no national spirit has yet been evolved, no public opinion formed, except here and there, and even then deprived of all efficacy in a country which is divided into a multitude of distinct societies by the institution of caste. The English, belonging almost exclusively to the wealthy and influential classes, and unattended by servants of their own nationality, whose menial status might diminish British prestige, are enabled to live like gods and move in a higher world, far above their midtitudinous subjects, by whom they are hated, yet feared. Apart from the various questions of internal policy, the main point for England is not only to uphold her sway in Cisgangetic India, but also to con- nect by easy and rapid routes the two centres of her vast empire on which " the sun never sets." She requires the geographical unity of a powerful state, for there are stiU great gaps in her boundless domain. The London and Calcutta highway is not absolutely secured to her fleets and armies, and would be exposed POLITICAL EIVALEIES. 31 on the flank were Russia to seize the Dardanelles and upper basin of the Euphrates, or place Cossack garrisons in the strongholds of Afghanistan. Thanks to her fast-sailing fleets, England has hitherto enjoyed a great advantage over her rival for empire ; for British armies are moved from the Thames to the Indus far more expeditiously than feeble Russian columns from the Caspian to the oasis of Merv. Hence, in spite of the maps, England is in reality much nearer to India than are the advanced Muscovite outposts on the Upper Oxus. The Mediter- ranean belongs to the fleets of England, which is thus enabled to close the Suez Canal at pleasure. She also rules supreme in the Red Sea, on the Arabian sea- board, in the Persian Gulf, and along the coasts of Persia and Baluchistan. But the water highways are insuflicieut, and she will also have to hold the overland routes beyond Europe. With this object she has already secured the virtual pos- session of Asia Minor and occupied Cyprus, at the extreme corner of the Mediter- ranean, over against the great bend of the Euphrates ; she also holds strong posi- tions in Makran and Baluchistan, and must either now or ultimately annex Kandahar permanently to British India. She is on friendly terms with the Western Asiatic sovereigns, by means of pensions gradually transforming them into vassals, thus avoiding the risk and expense of ruling them directly, for she also enjoys over Russia the great advantage derived from the possession of accu- mulated capital. Her military routes are being rapidly developed, and a line 600 miles long will soon connect the Indian railway system with Kandahar, the true key to Afghanistan. Half the distance separating Alexandretta from Calcutta will thus be traversed hj EngKsh locomotives. But is it not evident from such efibrts that the struggle for supremacy in Asia is approaching ? Slower in their movements, because opposed by still unsurmoimted physical obstacles, the Russians have, as a militarj'' power, advantages of another description over their English rivals. Their territory is not composed of scattered frag- ments, but forms from the shores of Lapland to the Pamir a perfect geogra- phical unity. A large portion of the inhabitants are, moreover, of Russian stock, and this ethnical element is yearly increasing by colonisation. Nor ai-e the native tribes anywhere numerous enough to cause serious alarm to the Slav settlers, who have become diversely intermingled with them, and who do not maintain a haughty reserve towards the former owners of the land. Perfect fusion Is prevented by differences of social habits, and amongst the Moham- medans by religious prejudice. Still the Orthodox Russians and the Moslems of Turkestan do not, like the English and Hindus, hold aloof from each other, as If they belonged to two distinct orders of humanity. Hence national cohesion may be ultimately realised In Asiatic as easily as It has been in European Russia. The Russians will also, like the English, soon doubtless succeed In giving greater material cohesion to their Asiatic Empire by means of military routes, lines of wells, and even railways across the Intervening wastes. The railway system, now reaching no farther than the Caucasus, Atrek valley, and river Ural, wIU bo continued to the foot of the Hindu-Kush, and then formidable armies may in a few weeks be massed on the frontiers of the lands hitherto swayed by British influence. D 2 32 ASIATIC EUSSLA.. But these frontiers still present many weak points, especially on the Iranian table- land and in the upland valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Whether the two rivals wish it or not, whether they seek to precipitate or avoid the conflict, it must sooner or later inevitably come. All the petty intermediate states are already being disintegrated under the pressure of the twofold attraction, and on both sides the intrigues, rivalries, political, commercial, and religious jealousies have silently begun the mighty struggle which must one day burst into open warfare. Thus are being prepared revolutions of a vital character in the heart of the Old World. The Asiatic lands, where, rightly or wrongly, the cultured races seek their primeval origins, are becoming the scene of a supreme political struggle between the two most powerful nations in Europe. Whatever be the issue, the hope may be entertained that Western Asia and the Indian world will definitely belong to the domain of Western civilisation, and that thenceforth all the European and Asiatic peoples will accomplish their evolution harmoniously together, so that all may benefit by the progress of each. Thanks to the reaction of Western culture on the Eastern world, mankind, conscious of its unity, has already been enlarged, and political revolutions are preparing for the world a common destiny and solution of the problems afiecting the life of nations. CHAPTEE II CAUCASIA. -THE PONTO-CASPIAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. HE Caucasian mountain system is often regarded as belonging to Europe. Rising like a barrier north of the eastern estremitj' of the Black Sea, it must have seemed to the Greek navigators dis- tinctly severed from Asia, v^hereas to the traders settled on the northern shores of the Euxine it appeared to form the southern limits of the great Scythian plains. Since that time geographers have discussed the question whether the natural confines of the two continents were indicated by the bed and marsh lands of the Phasis in Colchis, or b}' the Kimmerian Strait and course of the Tanais. Apart from this question, Hellenic tradition constantly kept in view these mountains, loftier than either Olympus, Etna, Hemus, or the Alps. The history of Greece itself was associated in legend with this distant range, where the first germs of civilisation were sought. Towards the shores of Colchis was directed the famous Argonautic expedition in search of the Golden Fleece, symbolizing the wealth of every sort flowing both from science, trade, and industry. Here, also, the Hellenes endeavoured to find the origin of their race. Deucalion, who peopled Greece, was son of Prometheus, and it was to a rock in the Caucasus that this Titan was bound for having stolen the fire from heaven. A sort of superstition, perhaps associated with the Promethean myth, formerly induced savants to apply the term Caucasian to all the fair European and Asiatic races, thus testifying to the instinctive reverence with which the nations have ever regarded these mountains forming the barrier between two worlds. This border-land was supposed to be still inhabited by the purest representatives of the race, whose beauty, symmetry, and graceful carriage were spoken of as jjhysical advantages peculiar to all the white peoples. Nor has this term Caucasian yet quite disappeared from ordinary language as the synonym of the White, Aryan, or Indo-European stock. Since the true relief of the land has been determined by Pallas and other explorers, there can be no longer any doubt that the Caucasus belongs to Asia. It is sharply separated from Europe by the deep depression now traversed by the 34 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Mauicli, aud formerly filled by the -waters of the Ponto-Caspian Strait. In the south the system, while preserving its character of a distinct chain, is connected by spurs and a lofty transverse ridge with the Anatolian mountains, so that it forms the advanced mass of the whole continent. Historically, also, the inhabitants of the Caucasus belong to the Asiatic world. Before the iutervenfion of Russia the Georgians, Mingrelians, Armenians, Kurds, Tatars, and other Transcaucasian peoples maintained relations, whether friendly or hostile, chiefly with the inha- bitants of Anatolia and Persia. The southern slopes facing the sun are also much more densely peopled than those turned towards the arid steppes of Europe. Hence, even after their annexation to Russia, the centre of gravity of these Asiatic lands was naturally found at the southern foot of the Caucasus, where is concen- trated the aggressive force of the empire against the other regions of Western Asia. Recently a considerable strip of Turkish territory has been forcibly added to Transcaucasia, so that this division of the Caucasus, already the most populous, has become nearly as extensive as the northern. It is even larger, if in it be included the province of Daghestan, which, though lying north of the main raujre. is administratively regarded as part of Transcaucasia.* The Great Catjcasus. Few ranges are characterized by a more striking unity than the Caucasus, tbe Kok-kaf or Kaf-dagh of the Tui-ks and Tatars, a section of " the chain that girdles the world," according to the Oriental mythologies. Seen from the distant steppes of Mozdok or Yekaterinogradsk, stretching from horizon to horizon, it seems like a rampart with a thousand sparkling battlements. The poets call it simply the Caucasus, as if it were but one frowning mass reaching from sea to sea for a distance of 720 miles. It is also called the " Great Caucasus," in contradis- tinction to the irregular spurs of the "Little," or rather " Anti-Caucasus " beyond the Kura basin. Approached from the Euxine or the Russian steppes, it seems at first an impalpable vapour, a hazy cloud mingling with the fogs of the sur- rounding swamps ; then it assumes more distinct outlines, breaking into snowy or wooded crests and deep gorges, the whole soon bounding the horizon, towering above the zone of cloud, wind, and storm, eclipsing the sun midway in its coiirse, threatening the lowlands with avalanches and widespread ruin, hurling the foaming torrents in cascades and rapids down to the plains. Accustomed to the sight of boundless steppes or slight eminences, the Russians could not fiiil to be struck by these lofty summits which seemed to belong to another nature, whose charm was enhanced by the valour and beauty of its inhabitants. * Ai'ca and population of Eussian Caucasia :— Ai'ea in Square Estimated Population Miles. (18S0). Ciscaucasia 88,900 1,920,000 Daghestan 11,436 500,000 Transcaucasia with Kuba . . . 75,344 3,250,000 Kecent conquests 10,636 200,000 Total 186,316 5,870,000 THE GEEAT CAUCASUS. 85 Russian literature reflects the deep impression produced on the imagination by the sight of the Caucasus, and by the -warfare waged against its numerous tribes. Pushkin described in song the romantic scenery of Circassia ; Lermontov inter- preted the traditions of the inhabitants, and made the Caucasus the scene of his novel the " Hero of the Day," -which had such a large share in the intellectual development of the rising generation. How many noble spirits have perished, like Lermontov himself, in this region, persecuted during life, all the more honoured in death ! The general south-east and north-'west direction of the range suffers but slight deviations. It thus foUo-ws the same line as the mountains of Persia, Asia Minor, and so many other Asiatic systems. Its origin is therefore associated -with the laws by which a large portion of the crust of the Old World has been modified. Fig. li. — Bed op the Caspian. According to A. Grimma. Scale 1 5 500,900. E.oF Gr: 50' C^irron to 6 Fatlioms. to GO. 60 to 12a 120 to ISO. ISO and upwards. . 90 Miles. In the formation of the surrounding lands the Caucasus has even played a more important part than is evident from its apparent relief. With a regularity siu'- passiug that of all other systems, it is continued beyond the main ridge by argil- laceous hills thro-wn up by igneous agencies. At either extremity low peninsulas hea-ving with the pressure of pent-up forces are projected seawards — those of Taman on the west, and Apsheron on the east. The first is scarcely separated from another peninsula, that of Kertch, advancing from the Crimean mountains, while the second stretches across the Caspian in a line marked first by volcanic islets, and then by a submerged bank separating the two great northern and southern marine depressions. On both sides of this bank the lead sinks 1,300 feet deeper than the line of projection of the Caucasus. On the east coast the cape north of the Krasnovodsk peninsula is the starting-point of a chain of 36 ASIATIC EUSSIA. heifhts, hills or single escarpments continuing the line of the Caucasus directly to the Murghab valley between Merv and Herat. Through these eminences and those of North Afghanistan the Caucasian system is connected with that of the Hindu-Kush. The Caucasus resembles the Pyrenees in its direction, in the serrated form of the main range, in its position between two marine basins, and like them also it may be con'sidered as consisting of two sections of unequal length. But if the o-ap forming the natural limit between the western and eastern sections is not situated in the middle of the range, it lies at all events almost exactly midway between the two seas. Through this depression passes the great military high- way between Russia and Tiflis. On the meridian of this pass the main range contracts on either side to a width of about 60 miles between the two opposite plains, while east and west the highlands spread much farther north and south. The western section, though the narrower, is the higher of the two, for here rise the loftiest summits, six at least of which surpass Mont Blanc, culminating point of Europe.* Daghestan, i.e. " the Highlands," comprising the most important region of the Eastern Caucasus, is lower, but more irregular and rugged, than the western section. The old geographers supposed that the system consisted of a simple unbroken rido-e ; but the investigations of Abish and others show that the general relief is much more intricate. The chain is almost everywhere formed by two ridges, and in many places even by three or four running parallel, or nearly so, with each other, and connected at intervals by nuclei, thus presenting a formation analogous to that of the Andes. The upper valleys of the Caucasus generally take the form of cirques, or elongated craters, in which are collected the head-streams, and from which they escape through a deep lateral gorge. From the orographic point of view the Koshtan-tau may be considered the culminating point of the system ; for this peak, which has never been scaled, rises on the parting-line between the two slopes. Between the sources of the Kuban and of the Adal- kokh, 100 miles farther east, the watershed presents no passes lower than 10,000 feet. The first breach below this elevation is the Mamisson Pass (9,540 feet), situated at one of the sudden breaks in the main range, on a transverse ridge branching off at the Zikari Mountains. East of this pass numerous gaps occur at altitudes ranging from 6,500 to 10,000 feet. Although the triangular survey of the Caucasus has long been finished, the work of exploration is still far from complete. Since 1868 the Kazbek and Elbruz have been ascended by Freshfield, Moore, and Tucker, accompanied by the Chamonix guide Devouassoud, and several other peaks have also been scaled ; yet the Alpine Clubs have still plenty of work before them, especially in the Western Caucasus. The northern and southern slopes of the range differ greatly in their general * Chief summits of the Caucasus : — Feet. Elbruz 18,820 Kashtan-tau 17,370 Dikh-tau 17J90 Feet. Kazbek 16,800 Ushba (Besoch-mta) . . 16,750 (?) Aghish-tau, or Adish-tau . . 16,250 (f) THE GEEAT CAUCASUS. 87 aspects. Tlie latter is on the whole the more abrupt of the two, and the distance from the central ridge to the plains watered by the Kura is about one-half that which intervenes between the same point and the northern valleys of the Sulak and Terek. In the west a similar contrast is presented by the slopes facino- the Rion and Kuban respectively. The descent towards the Kuban is very irre"-ular being broken first by a series of parallel crests, and then lower down by the pro- jections of the upland limestone terraces resembling the glacis of a rampart, which stretch somewhat confusedly from the Euxine to the Caspian, but which present Fig. 15. — Geolooic.vl Fokmatioxs of the Central Caucasus. According to E. Favre. Scale 1 : 1,400,000. Gianites Palseozorc Schists. C. Perron Lower Jurassic "Upper Jurnssic Lower Chalks. Lauds. XjOnds. ^ ^ Upper Chalks. Tndetenniued Lower Tertiaries. Angitie Porphyry. 24 Miles, Andesine. remarkably distinct outlines about the western hemicycle of the Upper Terek, There is thus developed a vast intermediate valley between the main range and the advanced ridges of Jurassic formation. These terraces slope very gently toward the steppe, whereas the side facing the central chain is broken by steep declivities, some of which present nearly vertical walls over 3,000 feet high. These broken terraces, intersected by rapid torrents, are regarded by the inha- bitants as of far greater importance than the higher eminences of the main range, for the pastures and woodlands are here parcelled out as landed property. Every prominence has its name, whereas till recently the Elbruz and Kazbek were the only peaks of the main range known by name to the l®wlanders. 38 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Geological Formation — ^Volcanic Action. Tlic regularity of the Caucasian system is not confined to the general relief, but is also shown, at least on the northern slopes, in the main features of its geology. The chief range consists principally of crystalline schists, resting hero and there on granites, and diminishing in extent as we go eastwards. The Surara transverse ridge, connecting the Caucasus with the Anti-Caucasus, also consists of crystalline roehs ; but here the strata are -far less regular than on the northern slopes. Eight and left of the great central chain, the prominences on both slopes are chiefly composed of limestone and silicious strata of Tarious ages — Jurassic, cretaceous, or eocene. In the north these older formations are covered by the jDliocene and more recent steppe lands. In their prevailing characteristics the Urukh, Terek, and Baksan valleys all closely resemble each other. Here the streams rise in wild and rugged granitic cirques, thence traversing marls and sandy clays between glens dotted with numerous villages, beyond which they enter narrow gorges, above whose chalk sides are visible the pastures and woodlands. Lower down stretches the steppe, where the torrents combine to form the Terek. About the middle of the range, between Daghestan and the Western Caucasus, a sort of geological inlet penetrates into the Upper Terek valley, where a vast horizontal plateau of tertiary grits projects like a peninsula between the surroimd- ing chalks. Here the attraction of the hills is unusually active, the deviation of the plummet towards the intermediate rocks amounting to thirty-eight seconds between Vladikavkaz, at the northern base, and Dushet, south of the range. Porphj'ries cropping out in the upper regions raise their steep crests above the snow-line, while in the central regions more recent lavas have broken through the crust, especially on the southern slopes. In the north the Elbruz, culminating point of the system, is an old volcano, which was probably active when the Euxine and Caspian were still connected by the Manich Strait towards the close of the tertiary or beginning of the following epoch. This mountain terminates in a sort of horseshoe cirque, which seems to be a crater partly fallen in. The Kazbek also is a trachyte cone, while the crests of the " Red Hills," farther south, are all volcanic, and the route skirting the Aragva passes along the foot of columnar basalt rocks. Nor are the subterraneous forces still extinct in the Caucasus. Not only are both extremities fringed by boiling mud volcanoes, but numerous mineral and naphtha springs bubble ujj from underground lakes disposed in symmetrical order on both sides of the range. The hot springs are amongst the most copious in the world, though few of them seem to be associated with the igneous forces lying beneath the main chain. Earthquakes, probably of volcanic origin, occur at frequent intervals in the valleys of the Kura and Araxis, while regular upheavals of the land have taken place at both ends of the range. The steep clifls overlooking the little harbour of Petrovsk, in Daghestan, are scored by horizontal lines produced by the former action of the waves, although they are now some 300 feet above the present level of the Caspian. On the Abkhasian coast there are also distinct evidences of GEOLOGICAL FOEMATION— VOLCANIC ACTION. 89 clianges of level, and as high as 500 feet there are visible old marine snores in every respect resembling those still washed bj' the waves of the Black Sea. The marshy springs oozing from the ground at this elevation contain shell-fish, such as the mijsis and gammarus, of the same species as those now inhabiting the Euxine, though their presence has been attributed either to a former communication with that sea, or to the action of water-fowl carrying the spat backwards and forwards in their plumage. Lake Abrau, near N'ovo-Rossiisk, also contains a semi-marine fauna, which has gradually adapted itself to the fresh water. The remains of buildings in the alluvia near Sukhum-Kaleh, both above and below the surface, show that even in historic times the land has first subsided and then been Fig. 16. — Hot Spbings and Naphtha Eegioxs in the Caucasits. Scale 1 : 11.000,000. 44' 4Clt .,.-• T'^^i^JA /'is ! 43' C.Parciin Vaphtha Kegions. Hot .Springs. Naphtha Wells, i ISO Miles. upheaved, and that it is now again subsiding. The ruins of a fort are at present 15 to 18 feet under water, and a large wall has been found even at a depth of 32 feet. After every storm, coins, rings, and other antique objects are constantly thrown up, and in one instance a gold coronet was discovered in the sands. Similar oscillations have occurred on the Baku coast of the Caspian, where the remains of a building are still visible near the shore. The advanced spurs of the Caucasus are not high enough to conceal the central chain from the inhabitants of the plains. From the steppes of Stavropol, a distance of 120 miles, the snowy Elbruz is distinctly visible, rising in solitary majesty on the horizon. Travellers approaching from the north see it for miles 40 ASIATIC EUSSIA. and miles along the route, constantly increasing in size long before the presence of the range is betraj-ed by any other peaks to the right or left. But when it suddenly comes in sight it presents a stern, almost a terrible aspect, snow-clad onlv on the highest crests, here and there furrowed by avalanches, but lacking the charm and variety of the Alpine masses. Being much narrower and simpler in its structure, it is necessarily more uniform than the Alpine system. It is also deficient in grand cascades, its hills having already been furrowed by the action of water into regular river beds. "Water Systems — Skow-line — Rainfall — Glaciers. The absence of detached masses and of broad intervening valleys deprives the Caucasus of great lakes like those of the Alps. No such lacustrine tarns even occur as are so frequently met in the Swiss and Tyrolese highlands. The fresh- water lakes, formerly stretching along the plains at both sides of the range, have been drained since the glacial period. One of these old lakes, contemporary with Fig. 1". — Profile of the Caucasus as seen fkom Patigoksk. According to Freshfield. C Perron the volcanic eruptions, is now replaced by the cultivated fields of Vladikavkaz and Alagir in the Terek valley. Another of equal extent on the south filled the Karthalian basin between Suram and Mtzkhet, disappearing with the bursting of the embankments that confined the waters of the Kura. The whole of the Alazan valley, with that of its tributary the A'iri-chai, was also flooded by a lake, which ultimately escaped through a gorge in the advanced spurs of the Caucasus. In fact, all the river valleys, those of the Kuban and its tributaries the Zelenchuck, the Laba, and the Belaya, no less than those of the Kura system, formerly served as lacustrine reservoirs, so that the Caucasian streams, like so many others, may be regarded as reduced lakes or contracted fiords. But the Anti-Caucasus, a vast hillj^ plateau, or rather an aggregate of irregular masses with axes at various angles, thus presents far more numerous land-locked depres- sions, and this system accordingly oflfers in its lakes a marked contrast to the Ponto-Caspian chain. Although with a greater mean elevation than those of the Alps, the Caucasian peaks are far less covered with snow and ice, not onlj' in consequence of their more southerly latitude and other climatic conditions, but also owing to the WATER SYSTEMS— SNOW-LINE— RAINFALL— GLACIERS. 41 narrowness of the upper crests, and the absence of cirques where the accumulated snows might serve as reservoirs of glaciers. The snow-line varies considerably with the latitude, exposure, amount of snow or rainfall, direction and force of the winds, and relative position of the several mountain masses. The extreme limits would appear to diSer as much as G,100 feet, for, according to Eadde, the line falls to 8,460 feet on the western slopes of the Garibolo, whereas Parrot fixes it at 14,560 feet on the north-west side of the Great Ararat. Mount Alagoz, rising to a height of 13,660 feet in the Anti-Caucasus, is entirely free of snow in summer, and even in the Great Caucasus Ruprecht ascended to an elevation of 12,600 feet on the south side without meeting a single snow-field ; but this was in the eastern section facing the Caspian. Farther west the moist winds from IS. — RAINF.4.LL OP THE CAUCASUS. Sc-Ue 1 : lO.MO.OOO. Under 10 Inches. 10 to 20. 20 to 40. 40 to 80. . 240 Miles. C Perron ■■■!i so and upwards. the Eux.ine often cover the southern slopes with snow. In some of the uj)per valleys of the Eion basin the snowfall is said to amount to from 16 to 23 feet. On the whole, and apart from local differences, the line of perpetual snow would seem to oscillate on the southern slopes between 9,600 and 11,600 feet, and on the northern between 11,000 and 13,000 feet. Thus the mean limit is about 2,000 feet higher than in the Pyrenees, though they lie in the same latitude. This contrast must be attributed to the greater general dryness of the climate, at least on th.e northern slopes, and to the greater summer heats of the Caucasus. The portion under perpetual snow begins at the Oshtek. or Oshten, in the west, and extends eastwards to the Kazbek, beyond which the snow rests throughout the year only on isolated peaks. 42 ASIATIC EUSSIA. The various meteorological statious establisteJ along the range have approxi- mately determined the diminution of humidity, owing to which the snow-line rises gradually eastwards, according as the moist winds recede from the Euxine and approach the Eastern Caucasus, where the continental winds prevail. On the slopes facing the Black Sea the snow or rain fall is three times more abundant than in the centre, and six, eight, or even ten times more so than in the Kura basin and the Apsheron peninsula. At times not a drop of water falls for six months along the lower course of the Kura, for the influence of the west winds from the Euxine reaches no farther than the Suram Mountains, which connect the main range with the Anti-Caucasus, east of Kutais. The Caspian itself supplies very little moisture to the Eastern Caucasus, because the limited amount of humidity brought by north-east winds is mostly discharged on the advanced spurs at the foot of the Daghestan highlands. Notwithstanding the excessive summer heats of this region and its higher snow- line, the mean annual temperature does not exceed that of the Pyrenees, or even of the Alps. For the cold north-east winds, being untempered by the warm south-westerly breezes, which are arrested by the Anatolian plateaux, lower the normal temperature of the Caucasus. The climates of Caucasia and Switzerland have a common mean, but the extremes are much greater in the Ponto-Caspian region than in Central Europe. The temperatui-e in summer and winter varies in Switzer- land about 18° or 19^, whereas there was a difference of 27° at Patigorsk in 1876. The absence of snow jjroduces a corresponding scarcity of glaciers. Yet they are numerous enough, especially about the Elbruz, and there is almost continuous ice for a distance of 120 miles between the Juman-tau and the Xaltber, above the Ar-don valley. The lowest glacier is that of Kalchi-dou, or Karagan, which drains from the Adai-kokh into the Upper Urukh valley. According to Freshfield the only Swiss glacier of equal length is that of Alech. But as a rule the frozen streams of the Caucasus descend no farther than 7,000 feet above the sea ; that is, several hundred feet above the corresponding limits in the Swiss Alps. Unlike the snow, they reach a lower point on the northern than on the southern slopes, a fact due to the general relief of the mountains, which are much more abrupt on the south than on the opposite side, where they slope northwards in long valleys. Unmistakable evidences of the passage of former glaciers show that m the Caucasian, as in the European mountain systems, the frozen streams reached a much lower depth formerly than at present. About the outlets of the Malka, Baksan, and Terek vaUeys there occur erratic boulders suspended at a slight elevation along the slopes of the bluffs overlooking the plains. The Yermolov stone, near the northern entrance of the Darial Gorge, is 96 feet long, with a bulk of 197,900 cubic feet, and similar blocks 26 feet long are met at Vladikavkaz, and even 5 miles forther north. In Svania the upland villages now standing over a mile from the extremity of the glaciers are built with the detritus of the moraines here stranded from former glaciers. At present the best known and most frequently visited glacier in the Caucasus is the Devdoraki, or Devdoravki, one of the eight that descend from the Kazbek. P PS ■< a H H H LIBRARY VEGETATION— FAUNA. 43 It is visible at a distance of over 5 miles west of the valley watered by the Terek, aud crossed by the military route between Vladikavkaz and Tiflis. Its lo-s^er course is subject to sudden and violent floodings, and while most of the other Caucasian glaciers are retreating, the Devdoraki has advanced 770 feet between the years 1863 and 1876. The general progress of the ice has been calculated 19.;— This Kazbek- Vie-w taken prom the Kazdek Statiok. not to exceed 4 inches a day, whereas the average velocity on Mont Blanc is about 12 inches. Vegetation — Fauna. While the lower limit of the ice-fields is higher in the Caucasus than in tlie Alps, forest vegetation reaches a higher point. True tiuiber flourishes at a mean elevation of 7,730 feet. Then come the azalea and rhododendron, the dwarf laurel and bright green sorrel, and lastly, the Alpine plants of the pastures. The zone of trees is higher on the northern than on the southern slopes, thanks, doubtless, to their greater humidity ; for, although they receive less rain, they 44 ASIATIC RUSSIA. lose less by evaporation. The greatest elevation is readied, not by evergreen l^ines, as in Central Europe, nor by the cedar and larch, as iu Siberia, but by the birch, while the great forests of the slopes consist chiefly of conifers, the maple, lime, ash, hornbeam, beech, oak, and chestnut. The valuable box, so largely exported to England, and thence to the rest of Europe, forms in certain parts of Lower Transcaucasia impenetrable masses of vegetation, which, especially between Poti and Nikolaya, covers the whole coast of the Black Sea. The queen of Caucasian shrubs is the Azalea Pontka, one of the glories of terrestrial vegetation. This lovely plant, whose blood-red autumn foliage contrasts with the dark green of the tir, occupies a zone at least 6,U00 feet in vertical height between the Fig. 20.— Kazbek and Detdoeaki Glacieks. From tho Map of the Eussian Staff. Scale 1 : 165,000. ■■?Vv It. 4j«e5- 3 Miles. i C Perron advanced offshoots and the slopes upwards of 6,600 feet high. In some places the azalea is replaced by the rhododendron. The traditional belief in the intoxi- cating and even maddening effects of its honey has not been confirmed by more recent observation, and would seem to rest on altogether exceptional facts. In Eabarda, where bee-farming is largely developed, no such e^al consequences are attributed to the honey of the azalea. On the lower slopes the wild vine twines round the tnmks of the trees, whose branches are festooned with its foliage, intermingled with that of other twining plants. The vine is probably here indigenous, and the walnut is also supposed to have originated in the valleys of Imeria. In no other region are there so many stone fruits, several species of which, elsewhere vm.known, are found growing wild iu the ■\-EGETATION -FAUNA. 45 forests of Karthalia, soutli-west of the Kazbek. The Caucasus is, in fact, the classic land of fruit trees, and the gardens, especially of Mingrelia, abound in flowers and fruits, to which Western culture might easily impart an exquisite perfume and flavour. But as we proceed eastwards from the well- watered shores of the Euxine to the arid Caspian seaboard the vegetation gradually diminishes ; the forest lands become less numerous as we approach the eastern extremity of the main range ; the dry steppe winds burn up the grass itself, and the solar rays are reflected on the bare rock. Some Russian plants grow with difficulty even at elevations where they find a mean temperature answering to that of their native homes. The Russian soldiers have succeeded in acclimatizing the European Fig. 21. — Forests of the Caucascs. According to Petermann. Scale 1 : 11,000,000. 40 C. Perron . ISO Miles. vegetables in the upper valleys of Svania, but the beloved birch-tree, which might remind them of their distant fatherland, nowhere acquires a vigorous growth. The cultivated no less than the wild plants reach a much higher elevation on the slopes of the Caucasus than in the Alps, a fact due to the greater summer heats of the former region. In the district destined some day, perhaps, to be pierced by the tunnel of the future Caucasian trunk line between the Ar-don and Lakhva basins, all the upland villages are surrounded by barley- fields to an alti- tude of over 6,500 feet. In Ossetia this cereal reaches the village of Kolota (8,230 feet), and farther south it ripens on the slopes of the Alagoz at an elevation of 8,300 feet. Wheat also is grown as high as 6,700 feet, or 3,300 feet higher than in the Alps ; maize reaches 3,000 feet, and the vine 3,630 feet, near the village of VOL. VI. E 46 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Kurta, in Ossetia ; but the best vintages of Kakbetia are those of the Alazan valley, 2,500 feet above sea-level. Many Caucasian forests have been cleared for agricultural purposes, but many ,more have been wantonly destroyed, and the destruction is still going on in the most reckless manner where timber most abounds. To save the labour of felling the trees, they are burnt down at the risk of setting fire to whole forests. When fodder fails, the trees are destroyed, and the cattle fed with their leaves and sprouts. Hence many regions formerly densely wooded are now bare, and even on the upland slopes the woodlands are rapidly disappearing. In spite of the ravages of man, most of the original wild animals of the Caucasus are stiU found there. The chamois and the tour, a species of wild goat, frequent the upper valleys, and some herds of the bison or wisant, wronglj' described as the aurochs, roam over the forests watered by tributaries of the Kuban at the foot of Mount Elbruz. The Caucasian bear, less formidable than the Eussian, is found no higher than 5,000 feet, the limit of fruit trees. Like the wolf and lynx, he inhabits the Abkhasian forests, and Prendel met one within 6 miles of Sukhum-Kaleh. The wild boar haunts the thickets of the lowlands, especially along the banks of tarns and rivers. The tiger, said to have come from the plateaux of Persia, rarely ventures to show himself on the plains of Transcaucasia, and never penetrates into the upland valleys. The leopard, hyena, and jackal are not unfrequently met about the Lower Kura, and the jackal occasionally finds his way across the main range to the forests of the northern slopes. In its fauna and flora Transcaucasia already belongs to the sub-tropical Asiatic world, whereas in this respect Cis- caucasia must still be included in the European zone. iNHABiTAinrs — Varied Ethnical axd Lixguistic Elements, The well-watered Transcaucasian plains might support as great a population as France, and two thousand years ago were probably abundantly peopled. The northern valleys are also fertile enough to supply the wants of millions ; yet Caucasia is on the whole less densely peopled than Eussia itself. In the north the steppe prevails, and here the population is restricted to the river banks. In the south also the plains of the Araxis and Lower Kura have remained unpeopled, owing to their extremely unhealthy climate, while in the highlands nearly all the region above the forest zone is a solitude of pasture, rocks, or snows, frequented only by a few herdsmen and hunters. The highest Caucasian village, Kurush, in the Daghestan highlands, about the source of a head-stream of the Samur, is 8,200 feet above sea- level, an elevation nearly equal to that of the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard in the Swiss Alps. But the summits of the chain rise from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above this last inhabited spot of the Caucasus. The most healthy zone lies between 2,500 and 6,650 feet, and here are situated the sanitary stations where most of the officials of Tiflis, Erivan, and Yelisabetpol spend the summer months. The most favourite elevation is 4,000 feet, where the vine, mulberry, and southern cereals still flourish, and where the pure and cool air UBRARV ETHNOGRAPHICAL MA 3 cult? LONDON. J. S. OF THE CAUCASUS. r^Ba^^.. -\.'^/j^Sti 600,000. idoMiIbs TU E &. C= LIMITED. INHABITANTS— VARIED ETHNICAL AND LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS. -17 from the glaciers prevails. The Tatars of the hot valleys harvest their maize in May, send their families and herds to the hills, and soon join them themselves, returning to the plains in time for the autumn vintage. Some of the insalubrious districts remain uninhabited except by a few of the peasantry engaged in irrigating the maize and rice fields. Still the population is densest, not in the healthy region of the advanced spurs, but in the valleys watered by the large rivers and traversed by the main highways. Here the population may easily be doubled as soon as the now forsaken irrigating canals are reopened, thus bringing under cultivation all the valleys of the Araxis and Kura. According to the old chronicles Trans- caucasia was formerly six times more populous than at present. "When the Mongolian prince, Batu Khan, seized the land in the thirteenth century he compelled every tenth adult male to serve in his armies, thus raising a force of 800,000 men. This would imply a population of 16,000,000, probably about the same number as in the time of Strabo. At the beginning of the present century commercial relations had fallen oif to such an extent that the highways leading from the Euxine to the Caspian, formerly followed by Greeks, Romans, and Genoese, had been completely abandoned. In 1823, for the first time probably for centuries, merchandise was transported from Redout-Kaleh to Baku, and this was considered a memorable event. Even now the communications between the two slopes of the main range are beset with difficulties. It is stiU untraversed by a Hne of railway, and tiU recently the two divisions of Caucasia were connected by one carriage road only. This route, frequently out of repair, and occasionally even destroyed by avalanches and detritus, runs east of Mount Kazbek through the gorges of the Darial, at all times so important in the records of migration and conquest. Known to the ancients as the " Gate of the Caucasus," this route forms in reality a rocky approach, whose issues were defended by strongholds, now replaced by the fortified stations of the Russians. East of the range the narrow strip of coast commanded on the one hand by the escarpments of the Caucasus, limited on the other by the waters of the Caspian, offered a second and easier highway to the invading or migrating tribes advancmg from Asia to Europe, or from Europe to Asia. But this route might here and there be blocked, and one of the passes at the extremity of a ridge in Daghestan was barred, like the Darial Gorge, by a derbent, or " fortified gate," whence the name of the town commanding this part of the coast. The Euxine seaboard skirting the "Western Caucasus seems since the Roman epoch never to have served as an historical route. But at that time the two divisions of the kingdom of Mithridates were connected by a road skirting the coast, and at several pomts milestones are still standing, which the Abkhasians look on as " fairy altars. But this road has been deserted since the Byzantine epoch. For centuries this coast- line, some 250 miles long, has been beset by too many natural obstacles, and guarded by tribes of too fierce a character, to serve as a military route, more especially as the sea was always open to Greeks, Genoese, Turks, and Russians to prosecute their commercial or warlike enterprises with the peoples of the Caucasus. The Genoese roads, of which traces have been discovered, did not follow the coast, E 2 48 ASIATIC RUSSIA. but crossed the hills, thus connecting the inland districts with the Euxine seaports. But these great highways were not forced without a struggle, and every fresh invasion scattered fresh fragments of nations amongst the surrounding upland valleys. Thus the Caucasus has become, in the language of Abulfeda, " The Mountain of Languages," an expression stiU current in Persia. Strabo tells us that the Greek traders frequenting the port of Dioscurias, on the Euxine, met there no less than seventy peoples, all speaking distinct languages, and Pliny adds that in his time one hundred and thirty different idioms were current in the same place. A.t present the languages and dialects of the Caucasus are still estimated at seventy. But TTslar, first of Caucasian philologists, points out that every local variety is regarded as a distinct language by traders and travellers, and that in reality the numerous Caucasian dialects may be grouped in a small number of families. Thus the thirty of Daghestan are reducible to five radically distinct. Many were formerly spoken by powerful and widely difi"used peoples, now represented only by a few remnants lost amongst the hills, and whom a geologist has compared to erratic boidders, the scattered fragments of now vanished mountains. The Caucasus, which stands out so boldly against the boundless and monotonous Russian steppes, contrasts no less strikingly in its varied peoples, races, and languages with the vast Slav world stretching from the Euxine to the Frozen Ocean. Nevertheless the Russians are now slowly penetrating into the valleys on both slopes of the main range, where they already number about 1,400,000, or nearly one-fourth of the whole population. They are in a decided majority in the districts bordering on Russia proper ; that is to say, in the province of Kuban and the government of Stavropol. Even in Transcaucasia they form one of the chief ethnical elements, especially in the towns and military stations, and here and there their Cossack or nonconformist settlements give a great local preponderance to the Slav race. Whilst many native tribes are disappearing either by extermina- tion or forced or voluntary exile, whilst others are slowly diminishing in the struggle for existence with the Russian invaders, the latter are steadily Increasing in the north by ceaseless encroachments on the ethnical frontier-lines, in the south by scattered colonies continually expanding, and thus approaching each other and absorbing the intervening spaces.* Russian Conquests— Main Physical Divisions. The long and laborious conquest of the Caucasus, which took about two hundred years, is now a familiar topic. In the north the Russians at first confined them- * Population of Caucasia according to races : — Estimated Population, law. 1S80. ^"ssians 840,000 1,410,000 Georgians Tatars and Turks . Armenians .... Lezghians and other Highlanders Persians, Tats, and Talishes . Other races . 830,000 1,150,000 825,000 1,330,000 620,000 720,000 1,400,000 1,050,000 75,000 120,000 36,000 90,000 RUSSIAN CONQUESTS— MLilN PHYSICAL DIVISIONS. 49 selves fo a line of fortified stations, where the Cossacks kept constant guard, ready at the first signal to leap into the saddle. The Transcaucasian provinces were originally nothing but foreign lands possessing no cohesion with the rest of the empire, but the pressure of the dominant race gradually increased. All the lowland tribes were finally subdued, while those of the uplands were compelled from year to j'ear to contract the limits of their warlike incui'sions. The Russians not only commanded both seaboards, enabling them to lend a helping hand to their allies or subjects in Mingrelia, Imeria, and Georgia, but they were from the first in possession of the breach presented by the Caucasus between the Terek and Aragva valleys. In 1769 the Darial Pass was crossed by 400 Russians, and in 1784, 1795, 1796, and 1799 they again utilised this route. In the beginning of the present century, when Georgia became an integral part of the empire, a military route connecting Transcaucasia with the north was constructed along the Terek and Aragva valleys, whereby Caucasia was henceforth divided into two distinct fragments. Pushkin describes the risks still incurred in 1829 by travellers, traders, and others on this highway. The daily progress under armed escort from station to station was little more than 10 miles. This first route was succeeded by another over the Mamisson Pass, between the Terek and Rion valleys, and by others through the lateral valleys, cutting off the forests in which the highlanders lurked to fall upon the Russian foe. " I should Hke," said Shamyl, " to anoint with holy oil the trees of my forest, and mingle fragrant honey with the mud of my hio-h- ways, for in these trees and this mud lies my strength." But although the bogs are far from having disappeared, the upland forests are no longer inaccessible, and their inhabitants have been subdued. In a song by Lermontov the Kazbek is represented as rising in its majesty, and looking with scorn on the puny swarms approaching from the northern plains to scale it. But when it sees them armed with pickaxe, shovel, and hatchet, grubbing in the soil and felling the trees, it trembles to its base, for it now understands that the day of thraldom is at hand. Caucasia consists of a number of distinct physical and ethnical regions, which must be described ajDart, although they are becoming daily more united by the bonds of common interests. AU the "Western Caucasus, tapering towards the Sea of Azov, forms, with the Kuban basin and neighbouring steppes, one of these natui-al regions ; another comprises the Central Caucasus, the home of so many different tribes ; while a third embraces the Eastern Caucasus, whose inhabitants are sometimes collectively known as Gortzi, or " Highlanders." The Terek basin, the plains and lakes of the Kuma, the half-drained bed of a former sea, ofier a marked contrast to this highland region. In the south the Rion and Chorukh basins, partly rescued from the Turks, are inhabited by people of one stock, and constitute a fairly well-defined ethnical province. But in the east the districts watered by the Kura ofier no such racial unity, for this region is shared by both Georgians and Tatars. StiU it forms at least a distinct geographical province, and the same may be said of the Araxis valley, which is occupied by Tatars and Armenians in common. 60 ASIATIC RUSSIA. II.— WESTERN CAUCASUS: KUBAN BASIN. ABKHASIA^^S, CIRCASSIANS, COSSACKS OF THE BLACK SEA. "West of the highlands cxilminating with Mount Elbruz, the Caucasus becomes a coast range, falling in abrupt escarpments towards the Black Sea. The slope is continued to a great depth under the surface, for even close to the shore the sounding-line reveals a depth of over 12,000 feet. The first section of the coast range west of Elbruz retains a great elevation, and is commanded by snowy crests 10,000 to 12,000 feet high. Here also, as in the Central Caucasus, the main ridge is flanked by parallel chains, which with the transverse ridges form long depres- sions, and invariably present their steep sides towards the middle chain, their gentler slopes towards the sea. The tracks across the range ascend the valleys parallel with it until they reach the passes, and thus easily skirt the peaks. Near Mount Elbruz the range rises above the snow-line. Here are the Juman-tau, the Marukh, and in the centre the magnificent Oshten, or Oshtek, beyond which the Fig. 22. — The ■Westebn Caucasus seen peom off Cafe Kodor. According to Dubois de ilontp^reus. crests diminish rapidly in elevation towards the north-west. The last point taking the name of mountain is the Idokopaz, south-east of the port of Novo-Rossiisk, after which there are nothing but hills, whose base merges with the alluvia of the Taman peninsula.* The range is crossed by few and little-frequented tracks, and even the military station of Sukhum-Kaleh is unconnected by any direct strategic route with the Kuban valley. Pending the completion in 1883 of the carriage road, travellers are obliged to follow the coast across the sandy and shingly beach. River Systems — Kuban Basin. Although the coast climate is very moist, the streams flowing to the Euxine are too short to be very copious. They are mostly mere torrents, which carry off the • Chief elevations in the Western Caucasus : — Feet. Oshten 9,606 Marukh Pass 11,660 Sancharo Pass 8,000 Nashar Pass (near Mount Elbruz) Psegashko Pass Idokopaz .... Feet. 9,774 6,360 2,460 lilVEE SYSTEMS— KUBAN BASIN. 61 rain-water falling on the uplands. But a few rivers in the southern valleys, such as the Kodar, Bzib, and ilzimta, acquire a certain importance, thanks to the paral- lelism of the main chain and side ridges enclosing their upper courses. Most of these upland valleys bear the traces of old lakes, which have been drained cither by the torrents or by underground streams making their way through caverns excavated in the Jurassic limestone rocks. Thus the Michish, represented on most maps as an independent river, is really a branch of the Bzib, passing for 2 miles under the Pskhuv Mountain, and escaping through an outlet near the coast. The Pitzunda River, running close to the Bzib, presents a phenomenon of a different order, for it seems to have changed its course within the historic period from the south to the north of Pitzunda. The Abkhasian streams are of little importance except for irrigation purposes in the lovely gardens and orchards on the coast. Here the palm is associated with European plants, beneath whose shade wind avenues of the rose and jasmine. But most of the streams flowing from the hills now form swamps at the outlet of their vallej's, where they poison the atmosphere and decimate the people. Hence the natives generally fix their homes far from the unhealthy coast lands, either in the forests or on the bare plateaux. As soon as the cHmate has been improved by drainage and clearing the ground of its rank vegetation, this part of the Euxine seaboard, some 240 miles long, will become a second Crimea for the Russians. Still the Abkhasian coast, while warmer and less subject to fogs than the Crimean, has the disadvantage of being less sheltered except on the south side of the lateral ridges. The average high temperature of the water contributes greatly to raise that of the land, which till the end of November stands as high as 58° or 59° Fahr,, varving at Sukhum-Kaleh in winter from 45° to 46° Fahr. The south-west gales blow with great violence in spring and autumn, and during their prevalence navigation is very dangerous on a coast destitute of good harbours of refuge. The Abkhasian seaboard is completely sheltered from the cold north-east blasts which sweep the Caspian and Kuma steppes. But at its northern extremity "Western Caucasia is not sufEciently elevated to arrest this horn of the Euxine, as it has been called by the Italian and Greek sailors frequenting these waters. On January I2th, 1848, the vessels riding at anchor off Novo-Rossiisk were driven seawards or stranded, and one of them sank with all its crew, borne down by the weight of the dense spray suddenly freezing in the rigging and on deck. The northern slope of the coast range belongs to the Kuban basin. This river, the Kuman of the Nogai Tatars, and Kubin of the Abkhasians, is fed by the Elbruz glaciers, and receives all the torrents and streams of the Western Caucasian valleys, except a few rivulets lost in the steppe before reaching the main stream. Swollen three times during the year by the spring rains, the melting of the snows in summer, and the autumn downpours, it often assumes the proportions of a large river from 700 to over 1,200 feet wide, and upwards of 10 feet deep. But at low water in August and September it is nowhere more than 4 feet deep, and in some years the northern arm of its delta runs dry. All attempts have hitherto failed to render it permanently navigable, although since 1873 the steamers from Kertch 52 ASIATIC EUSSIA. ascend as far as the Tiflisskaya stanitza 16 miles west of the Rostov- Vladikavkaz railway. Beyond this point it is navigable only for flat-bottomed boats. Thirty miles from the coast the Kuban, which has a mean volume estimated at 39,000 cubic feet per second, branches off into two arms, and these again ramify into numerous minor channels. The Protok, the main northern branch, flows Fig. 23. — The Akhtaei Limax, From the Map of the Eussian Staff. Scale 1 : 610,000. C-Perrotl to 16 Feet. 32 and upwaids. . 12 llUes. towards the Akhtari Hman, an inlet in the Sea of Azov. The Kara-Kuban, the southern and most copious, after traversing the marshj' lands of the Taman peninsula, again ramifies below Temruk, discharging partly into the Sea of Azov, partly into the Euxine through a shifting hoghar, or sandy channel inaccessible to large craft. The two mouths are distant 66 miles in a straight line, and at least 130 round the coast. The delta itself, which resembles that of the Nile in form, TAMAN TENINSULA. 53 consists of alluvial deposits made in the inner basin of a " limau," or lagoon, separated by an older strip of sand from tlie Sea of Azov. The soil held in solution by the Kuban being in the proportion of 1 to 480, these deposits would have rapidly filled the liman were they not carried away by the current partly to the Sea of Azov, and partly directly to the Euxine. Taman Peninsula. The lower stream has often shifted its bed, and islands and channels have so frequently changed place that the descriptions of the old writers are no longer intelligible. So recently as the fifteenth century the chief discharge was into the Sea of Azov, and since that time it has oscillated between the two branches, every fresh inundation modifying the currents. The Taman peninsula is everywhere studded with marshes and eriks, or false rivers, the remains of former freshets, and with river beds and banks showing in their alluvial strata the successive levels of the stream. Although about 24 miles broad, the whole peninsula is frequently transformed to its former insular condition by the lakes and side channels of the main branch. But though thus surrounded bj' water, this is not a lowland district, for it consists of five parallel chains of hills, occasionally rising 480 feet above sea-level, and separated one from the other by alluvial tracts, which were formerly inlets, and are still partly covered with lakes. The mud volcanoes of the Taman peninsula seem to have been at one time far more active than at present. They run exactly in the line of the axis or con- tinuation of the parallel ridges, and it was in the same line that a volcanic islet was erupted in 1799 near the town of Temruk. This mud islet, which was about 1,330 feet in circumference, with an elevation of 13 feet above the sea, soon disappeared, but was replaced in 1814 by a second cone, which remained some time above the surface. These mud hills of the Taman peninsula are amongst the most remarkable on the globe, for they present the complete succes- sion of phenomena from the simple oozing of mud to distinct volcanic eruptions. The Temruk islet is said to have vomited smoke and flames in 1799, and the Kuku-Oba, or "Blue Hill," 7 miles north-west of Taman, opened its crater in 1794, ejecting flames and fragments of frozen earth to a distance of over half a mile. Other volcanic cones cast up stones, accompanied by argillaceous muds, seaweed, roots of rushes and other aquatic plants, showing that they evidently communicated with the bed of the limans and sea. Formerly numerous frag- ments of Greek and Scythian pottery were found amongst the erupted matter, and in the immediate vicinity of the cones. In explanation of this fact Pallas suggests that the ancients may have been accustomed to throw in vases and other objects as ofi'erings to the volcanoes. The naphtha springs of the peninsula and north side of Western Caucasia also run in the line of the mud cones. The tertiary lands whose clays and marls contain this valuable substance occupy an upheaved area of at least 620 square miles, and are also continued under the limans. Lake Temruk itself contains a 54 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Fig. 24.— The Kxiku-Oba Mud Volcano. According to Pallas. Scale 1 : 23,000. small quantity, wliich, however, does not prevent the pike, perch, prawns, and other fish from living in its waters. Although wells have been sunk only in the most promising sites, the results have been so far quite as satisfactory as might be expected. The works were begun in 1866 in the Kuda-ko, or "Naphtha Valley," on a piece of ground presented by the Czar to one of his generals. The first well yielded about 2,400 gallons daily, but most of this mineral oil was lost, the reservoir having been swept away by sudden rains. The well itself soon ran dry, but six others were opened in 1870, which jointly yielded 62,000 tons a year. After the boring the jets of naphtha often rose to a height of 50 feet above the ground. Were the district j)roperly worked and con- nected by rail with the Anapa coast and Kuban basin, it might produce 700,000,000 gallons of distilled oil yearly. Inhabitants — The Cherkesses. Few regions of the Old World have shifted their populations more fre- quently than Western Caucasia and the Kuban basin. Since the middle of the century wars, massacres, and exile have caused the disappearance of tribes and whole nations from the valleys limited eastwards by the Elbruz, where they have been replaced by other races. The course of history has been abruptly arrested ; traditions, languages, dialects, have irrevocably perished, nothing remaining in the land except geographical names more or less distorted in the untrained mouth of strangers. In the last century the steppes of Circassia were still mostly peopled by the Cherkesses, who even owned grazing lands north of the Kuma, and procured their salt from the lakes in the Manich depression. In 1859 they numbered about 500,000 in Western Caucasia, and even in 1864, after the wars ending in the Russian conquest, they were still estimated at 300,000. But now they have ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in the country, and in all Caucasia they wUl soon be represented by a few individuals only. The Abkhasians also of the Euxine seaboard and southern valleys have mostly disappeared, although nomi- nally subjected to Russian rule since 1810, and treated far more leniently than the Cherkesses. They were reduced from about 150,000 in 1864 to 50,000 in CPecron 1,650 Feet. INHABITAXTS— THE CHEEKESSES. 55 1877, and wtole valleys were completely deserted when oyer 20,000 emigrated in mass after the struggle between the Eussians and Turks for the possession of Sukhum-Kaleh during the late war. Their place has been partially supplied by- Russians, and the sites of their former habitations are now known only by romantic graveyards overgrown with the wild plum, apple, pear, and vine. Vanquished by the armies of Nicholas, the Adigheh, or Cherkesses of the northern slopes and Upper Kuban valleys, preferred exile to permanent subjec- tion to the Russian yoke, 76,000 alone accepting the conditions offered them by the Russians. Happy to be rid of such enemies, the Government hastened to facilitate their departure, and their exodus ended in wholesale transportation. A proclamation issued in 1864, after the last battle, ordered all the Adigheh " to quit their valleys " within a month's time under pain of being treated as prisoners of war. The order was obeyed, and over four-fifths of the people were driven at the point of the sword from valley to valley until they found refuge in Anatolia, Cyprus, the Balkan peninsula, and other parts of Turkey. Thus were 260,000 transported by sea to the temporary depots at Trebizond, Samsun, and Sinope during the first six months of 1864, and according to the ofiicial returns 398,000 Cherkesses emigrated between 1858 and 1864. It is easy to understand what the sufferings and mortality must have been of these refugees, crowded on board small craft, or exposed in wretched hovels to hunger, cold, and hardships of every sort. In many places more than half had perished of starvation or disease a few months after quitting their homes. And even on reaching the districts assigned to them, thej- found themselves surrounded by hostile populations, of diffei'ent race, speech, religion, and customs. They themselves assumed the air of conquerors, con- tinuing their warlike or predatory habits, and seizing with the sword the fruits of the plough. The exUe of the Cherkesses was disastrous alike to them and to those with whom they were thrown. Although but few Cherkesses survive in the Caucasus, they have so long been regarded as typical of the Caucasian tribes generally, and they have exercised so much influence on those who have not yet emigrated, that they require to be studied as they existed before the exodus of 1864. At that time their determined resistance to the Russian invader had earned for them the reputation of being one of the most heroic peoples on the globe. Their chivalrous traditions, the patriarchal simpHcitj^ of their habits, their physical beauty and symmetry of form, rendered them unquestionably the foremost race in the Caucasus, so that their name came to be often applied in a general way to all the highland tribes. Unfortunately they lived only for war, and the verj- word Cherkess was usually explained to mean "Brigands," "Banditti," or "Highwaymen," although it more probably derives from the Kerketes of Strabo. Strangers find extreme difiiculty in pronouncing their rude and guttural language, and in their warlike expeditions they are said to have made use of a peculiar dialect. The Cherkesses belong probably to the same stock as the Georgians, Lezghlans, Chechenzes, and other mixed or non- Aryan tribes of Caucasia. Mostly very handsome, they are tall, slim, and broad-shouldered, with oval features, light 56 ASIATIC EUSSIA. complexion, bright eyes, abundant hair, mostly black, but occasionally also chestnut and fair. Both sexes consider obesity and other physical defects as disoraceful, and those who are so afflicted abstain from appearing at the public feasts and popular gatherings. Regarding beauty as the privilege of their race, they seldom intermarried with aliens. Their dress, of a remarkably elegant type, is admirably suited to these erect and pliant figures, and has accordingly become a sort of national costume for all the Caucasians, including even the Russian Cossacks and the peaceful Jews, who are sometimes found wearing the cherJceuM, with its cartouch pouch, in. their case " more ornamental than useful." Like the Albanians of the Pindus highlands, with whom they present many points of resemblance, the Cherkesses regard the vendetta as the supreme law. Blood demands blood, and the murderer must die, unless he purchase redemption, or succeed in kidnapping a child from the family of his enemy, in order to bring it up as his own, and then restore it to the paternal home. Family feuds lasted for geuerations ; yet, unlike his Svanian neighbour, the Cherkess scorned to lurk in stone houses, but, trusting to his strong arm, resided only in slightly constructed wooden huts. Vengeance, however, was never exacted in the presence of women, sacred beings, who might with a gesture arrest the hand of the slayer, and who yet belonged themselves to fathers or husbands claiming the right to kill them with impunity. According to the old custom, the young man seized by force his intended bride. The daughter of the Cherkess knew beforehand that she must quit the paternal home either by a real or feigned abduction, or else be sold in foreign lands ; yet such is the force of habit, that the thought of exile and the life of the harem seldom caused her any dread. Traditionally, however, they con- fidently expected that their beauty, good manners, and poetic language would insure to them the position of legitimate wives of distinguished persons. The boys, on the other hand, were generally brought up, not by their parents, but by an atalik, or "teacher," chosen especially for his physical and moral qualities, his courage, politeness, eloquence, skill in arms and horsemanship. When his education was over the young man returned to his home, but never ceased to regard the atalik as a true father. Thanks to the care thus taken in their education, the Cherkesses claimed to have become " the most polite people in the world." Although proud of their national freedom, they were not all equal amongst themselves. Yet, while forming three castes of princes, of nobles reduced bj' intestine feuds, and the simple peasantry, all were grouped in feush, or "brother- hoods," and it was these associations of men devoted to each other unto death that rendered their resistance so formidable to the Russians. The authority of the nobles prevailed mostly in the plains, where they had in some places succeeded in establishing a quasi-feudal system. But their peasantry fled to the highland Cherkesses for protection. Hence the incessant wars, resulting in the defeat of the nobles, many of whom adopted the fatal policy of applying to strangers for aid. Below the three classes of freemen there were the slaves, consisting exclu- sively of refugees and prisoners of war. The will of the freemen expressed in the THE ABKHASIANS AND COSSACES. 57 public gatherings had the force of law, and the princes and nobles constituted the executive. The priests, though ranking with the lords, had but little influence, for, owing to the confusions of creeds, the Cherkesses were at once pagans, Christians, and Mohammedans. As pagans they worshipped Shibleh, god of thunder, war, and justice, and to him after the victory were sacrificed the fairest of the flock. They venerated the tree blasted by lightning, beneath which the criminal found a safe refuge. The gods of the air, water, woodlands, fruit trees, and herds, all animated by the breath of the Great Spirit, had also their special worship, and received offerings, if only a few drops solemnly poured out from the goblet. To soothe the stormy sea, and induce it to spare the mariner, mother, wife, or betrothed committed her votive offerings to the mountain torrent, by which they were borne to the Euxine, whose response was the soughing of the winds and the banking up of the clouds. Such was the religion of the ancient Cherkesses ; but till the latter half of tho eighteenth century the nobles mostly claimed to be Christians, and worshipped in the chapels, whose ruins are still met here and there on the hill-tops. But the Sheikh Mansur, whom the Russians afterwards sent to die in the island of Solovetz, in the White Sea, made nearly all his countrymen Sunnite Moham- medans. The influence of the Crimean khans worked in the same direction, and the faith of Islam became more and more intensified according as hatred of the Christian Muscovite invaders increased. Nevertheless certain Moslem practices, especially polygamy, were not generally introduced, and the old family life held its ground. In religious zeal neither the Cherkesses nor other western high- landers are to be compared with the Kara-chai, or " Black River " Tatars of the southern Kuban valleys, west of Mount Elbruz, who are strict Mohammedans, engaged in trade, and as intermediaries between the northern and southern Caucasian tribes. The Abkhasiaxs and Cossacks. The Abkhasians, who still retain in a slightly modified form the name of Abazes, by which they were known to the Greeks, call themselves Absua, or " People." Before the great emigrations they occupied nearly all the southern slope of the Caucasus between the Ingur and Bzib valleys, and at certain points encroached on the Cherkess territory on the opposite slope. Their speech resembles that of the Adigheh, but they differ greatly from them in appearance and customs. The Absua are shorter, of browner complexion and blacker hair than the Cherkesses, and their featufes are mostly irregular, with a harsh, wild expression. Hence slaves of this race commanded no more than half the price of their Circassian neighbours. Though of less chivalrous appearance, like them they preferred to live by the sword, or scour the sea as corsairs. Before the Euxine had become a " Russian lake," their long gaUeys, impelled by oar or sail, and with crews of from one hundred to three hundred men, ventured along all the shores of Anatolia, the Crimea, and European Turkey. Many also took service or became slaves in Egj'pt, where they were numerously represented amongst tlie 58 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Mamelukes, and where not a few celebrities were natives of some upland Abkhasian valley. Like tbe Cherkesses, they formed warlike confederacies with their princes, nobles, and freemen, leaving to slaves the hardships of field operations. Some were still unacquainted with money before the Russian rule, exchanges being usually effected by a cow, whose calves represented the interest. It thus some- times happened that after a few years a small loan had to bo repaid by a whole herd. But in 1867 this primitive mode of usury was replaced by that which is in vogue amongst " civilised " nations. Like the Cherkessians also, they were still pagans in thought, while retaining the traces of the old Christian worship in their Moslem creed. Thus they respected churches and the cross, eat pork, and brought to their temples votive oflPerings of arms, coats of mail, or garments. Even now a chapel, traditionally supposed to have been built by St. Paul on an offshoot of the Marukh, is one of their Fig. 25.— Abkhasian Type. chief places of pilgrimage. But the most revered temple was still the forest, where they loved to pronounce their solemn vows, and suspend their offer- ings on the branches of the sacred oak. Here were also formerly placed the coffins of their dead, in the belief that the gaseous explosions would cause the demons to respect their repose. They pay extreme devotion to the departed, and their burial-places are far better cared for than the dwellings of the living. Several thousand Abkhasians still occupy the upper valleys of the Southern Caucasus, whereas the Adigheh have ceased to exist as a distinct nationality on the opposite slopes. Here the Kara-chai alone have succeeded in hitherto resisting the advancing Muscovite element. Elsewhere the Russians are encroaching incessantly on the domain of the now subdued highlanders. The natives of the Caucasus formerly looked towards the south as the source of civilisation, and they received mainly from Georgia their arms, costly stuffs, and letters. Now they are fain to turn towards the north, whence come the ukases, the armies, and the colonists destined one day to absorb them. Great Russians, Little Russians, Cossacks of both branches, take part in this migratory movement, to which the Government has imparted a distinctly military character by organ- izing the settlers in companies, battalions, and regiments. All Western Caucasia may be said to be already Russian. Bohemian colonists also, who have received allotments in Circassia, are gradually amalgamating with the conquering race, and the number of Slav immigrants in the Adigheh territory has already long surpassed that of the natives. THE ABKHASIANS AND COSSACKS. 69 The plains of the Lower Kuban and Taman peninsula have been more subject than most regions to successive changes of population, unaccompanied by any appreciable mingling of races. The affinities can no longer be determined of the builders of the dolmens scattered over the peninsula and neighbouring lands, but elsewhere unknown in Caucasia. These dolmens are distinguished from those of other countries by the circular opening in the anterior slab, large enough to allow of a child's head being passed through. The history of the Kuban valley does not embrace these monuments of the age of iron, for it reaches back scarcely more than ten centuries, to a time when this region was occupied by the Khazars and Polovtzi, a remnant of whom were the Kumans, who settled in Hungary. Towards the close of the tenth century the Eussian colony of Tmutarakan had already been established in the Taman district, where they had formed relations Fig. 26.— Cossack Sextixel. with other Russian settlers in the Crimea. The chronicles describe their struggles with the Yasses and Kosogs, predecessors of the Cherkesses, and an inscribed stone found near Taman, and now in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, bears witness to the advanced state of civilisation of the early Russian settlers in this region. But they were not numerous enough to hold their ground in the midst of hostile populations, and the country was afterwards occupied by Tatar tribes under Mongol priaces. At the beginning of the eighteenth century other Russians made their appearance, not as enemies, but as refugees, in this region. These were the I^ekrasovtzi Cossacks, who preferred the rule of the Crimean Khan to that of Peter the Great, and who were afterwards joined by numerous Raskolniks from various parts of the empire. The country was thus soon repeopled by Russians, who cultivated the soil, established fisheries on the rivers and lagoons, and 60 ASIATIC EUSSIA. introduced the flue TJkranian cattle since propagated in the Transcaucasian provinces. But these industrious settlers, falling under the Czar's displeasure, were compelled to seek refuge first amongst the Cherkesses, and afterwards in Asiatic and European Turkey. Most of them became ultimately absorbed in the surrounding Moslem populations. They were succeeded by some two thousand I^ogai Tatar families from the Crimea, who were in their turn removed in mass by the Russian conquerors to the steppes west of the Don. Henceforth the country formed an integral part of the empire, and was disposed of at the pleasure of Catherine and her all-powerful minister, Potomkin. The unfortunate Lower Dnieper Cossacks, after many vicissitudes, were trans- ferred, in 1793, to the marshy wastes on the right bank of the Kuban. Numbering 17,000 fighting-men, they were at first well received by the Cherkesses, but soon changed from friends to foes and conquerors. The war of conquest was a war of surprises. Eedoubts, watch-towers, and fortified stanitzas were established at all strategical points along the Kuban, and to guard against the enemy lurking in its sedgy banks there were formed those formidable phutunt which became the terror of the Cherkess outposts in the protracted border warfare. During these conflicts the Cossacks became gradually assimilated in manners, habits, and dress to the highland Caucasians, from whom they could not always be easily distin- guished. Hand in hand with this hostile struggle of some seventy years, the Cossacks maintained another against the outward surrounding, which is still far from concluded. At their arrival towns, villages, canals, highways, everything had disappeared. The process of resettlement also progressed very slowly In steppe lands, partly destitute of, partly covered by water. In the Kuban delta, where fever is endemic, the rate of mortaKty is very high, in some years often greatly exceeding that of the births. On an average one-third of the children die in the first year, and half the generation has disappeared between the third and fifth years. Topography. Here there are no large towns. Emigration has carried off most of the inhabitants, the constant wars have laid waste the lands, the absence of roads prevents the transport of produce to the coast, and the coast itself is still unhealthy, and nearly destitute of sheltered havens. Thus are neutralised the great advantages of a region which is, nevertheless, yet destined to become one of the most flourishing in the Old World. Even Sitkhum-Kakh, guarding Its southern approach, although chief town of a military district, and notwithstanding its deep and safe harbour. Is still an insignificant place. Yet it is supposed to occupy the site of the Hellenic town dedicated by the Milesians, some thirty -two centuries ago, to the Dioscuri, and afterwards known by the name of Sebastopol. The ruins of a Greek city, with its streets, open spaces, and the foundations of its buildings, are still partly visible at a depth of several yards in the Sukhum-Kaleh waters ; the remains of canals, roads, and ancient structures may be traced in the TOPOaEAPHY. 61 neiglibourliood ; and the debris of Greek monuments were utilised by the Turks to rebuikl, in 1787, the fortress of Sukhum, after it had been destroyed with the town in 1777. The imports and exports of the place have never in the best years amounted to £40,000 ; but the dolphin fishery is productive, and in 1872 as many as 3,800 were taken in the harbour alone. The village of Pitzunda, the Pythius of the Byzantines, was also at one time an important town, as is evident from the ruins iu the neighbourhood. A Byzantine church restored by the Eussians is said to lave been built by Justinian in 551. It was to the monastery of this place that the exiled St. Chrysostora withdrew when overtaken by death in 407. It afterwards became the chief Genoese trading station on this coast, and from it most of the Italian traders and missionaries set out, who have left in the "Western Caucasus so Fig. 27. — Valley of the Bzib. From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 850,000. CPerroti la Miles. many traces of their presence — churches, watch-towers, coins, arms. Many of the latter, inscribed with Latin or French legends, were still met with down to the middle of the present century in these highlands. Beyond Pitzunda follow the old forts of Gagri, Adler or Ardiller (Arduvach), and others. Farther on is the deep and well-sheltered roadstead of Twcqtse, at present a mere hamlet, but destined probably to become the chief trading-place on this seaboard. Meantime, Novo-Iiossiisk, or Sujuk, is the first town on the coast near the extremity of the Caucasus. It does a considerable trade, although the roadstead, like the neighbouring Bay of Gelenjik, is exposed to the north-east gales. The old Turkish town of Aiuipa lies on a still more dangerous spot. Thrice taken by the Russians, it was temporarily suppressed in 1860 in favour of Temruk, administrative capital of the Taman peninsula. At that time Temruk VOL. VI. F 62 ASIATIC EUSSIA. was a simple Cossack stanitza on a hill 250 feet high, in the centre of the isthmus stretching between two lagoons connected with the Xuban. In its -v-icinity are the chief mud volcanoes of the Taman peninsula, forming five distinct groups of about a hundred altogether. For some years past the mud has been applied to the treatment of rheumatic complaints. The village of Taman, which gives its name to the peninsiJa, lies near the strait facing Kertch and Yeni-Kaleh, and a little south-west of the fortress of Phanagoria, which stands on the site of the Greek city of that name. The stanitzas founded by the Cossacks in the districts watered by the Kuban and its tributaries have over the coast villages the advantage of lying at the junctions of the natural routes across the steppes. Several have grown into real towns, although the houses still remain scattered over a large area. In the Fig. 28.— The Tamax PEXixscLi.. From the Map of the Russian Sta£E. Scale 1 : 1,100,000. C Perrofi to 10 Feet. 16 to 32 Feel. 32 Feet and upwards. 12 AUles. province of Xuban alone there are no less than 146, each with upwards of 2,000 inhabitants, a vast number considering the short period since the colonisation began. In 1872 the population of the Kuban territory rose from 672,000 to 733,000, and, as the normal excess of births over deaths was only 6,000 or 7,000, the immigration could not have been less than 54,000. But such a rapid move- ment, directed without system towards marshy lands, necessarily entails fatal consequences on many of the new arrivals, more especially as the best tracts are already occupied by high officials and members of the imperial family. Between 1860 and 1870 over 325,000 acres were thus disposed of in the province of Kuban and government of Stavropol. The Cossacks do not distribute the land in separate holdings. " Together we conquered it," they say, "together we have defended it ; it belongs to all of us." TOPOGRAPHY. 63 The commune decides every year how the several districts are to be cultivated, and market- garden plots alone are held as private property. Still the officers, being no longer elected by their Cossack comrades, have received with their commission parcels of land, or li-Judors, intended to enhance their pi-estige. The example of the superior officers was soon followed by other dignitaries, and the stanitzas thus became surrounded by khutors, from which the herds of the com- monalty were excluded. In 1842 the Government proceeded with the regular distribution of the land according to the rank of the holders — 4,090 acres for Fig. 29. — Vallets of Euosion in the Kuban Basdi. From the Map of the Eussian Staff. Scale 1 : 750,000. EofG 40°50 •41 20 12 Miles. C Perron generals, 1,090 for superior officers, 545 for subalterns, 82 for siraijle Cossacks. The allotments of the soldiers, constituting the communal domain, were thus cut up into small fragments, and the peasantry proteated in vain against a distribution so entirely opposed to their interests. Of late years the Shalopiits and other sectarian communities have acquired a great development in this region, the habits of co-operation giving them exceptional strength, and enabling them to succeed where others fail. The most populous villages are found in the fertile valleys formed by erosion in the limestone terrace facing the Caucasus. The most important of the stanitzas F 2 64 ASIATIC RUSSIA. lying at the very foot of the Caucasian spurs is Maikop, formerly a first-class strategic point, now a chief mart for the produce of the whole country. In the Kubau valley are also the trading towns of Batalpasliinskaija ; Nikolayev&kaga, near the Karakent coal mines ; Ladovskaya ; and Tekaterinodar. The last named, now capital of the province of Kuban, does a considerable trade, and at its September fairs, frequented by 25,000 of the peasantry, the exchanges amount to about 2,000,000 roubles. Tckk, founded since 1848, has had a rapid development, thanks to its free trade and productive fisheries, and although its progress has been less marked since its privileges have ceased, it still remains the most populous town on the Caucasian seaboard. Stavropol, capital of the government of like name, stands at an elevation of 2,000 feet on one of the advanced terraces flanking the foot of the Caucasus. Founded as a- mere fort in 1776, it long remained without any importance except as a strategical position on the line of the ten fortresses guarding the plains of Ciscaucasia between the Don delta and the town of Mozdok. But thanks to the fertile lands by which it is surrounded, it has now become one of the most flourish- ing places in Russia. North of it stretch a number of populous villages in the Yegorlik and Sredniy-Yegorlik valleys, founded chiefly by peasantry from the centre of Russia ; hence forming not stanitzas, but selos, a circumstance which explains the difference of terminations presented by the names of villages in the Kuban and Yegorlik basins. HI.— CENTRAL CAUCASUS. KUMA AND TEREK BASINS. Between Mounts Elbruz and Kazbek the main range rises for a distance of 108 miles above the snow-line. At, certain intervals side ridges, with the summits of the range, form huge masses towering like glittering citadels of ice above the surrounding highlands. The Elbruz, with its counterforts, constitutes the most imposing of these masses in the Caucasus. It is the " Holy Mountain " of the Cherkesses, on whose snowy peak is enthroned the " Lord of the "World, Kino- of Spirits." The Adish, Kashtan-tau, and Dikh-tau also form a sort of promontory projecting beyond the main range, and succeeded farther east by a similar group consisting of the Adai-kokh, Tzea-kokh, and neighbouring mountains. Immediately east of this group the chain is broken by the deep gap through which flows the Ar-don ; but the gorge is blocked by a ridge running parallel with the main axis, and culminating with Mount Zikari. In the same way the Zilga-kokh stands at the southern entrance of the depression formed by the torrents flowing between the masses culminating respectively with the Tepli and Kazbek. The latter, which is the Mkinvari of the Georgians, and Urs-kokh, or " White Mountain," of the Ossetes, is still more venerated than Mount Elbruz, thanks probably to its position near the gate of the Caucasus, now known as the EIVEE SYSTEMS— KLTMA BASIN. 65 Darial Pass. Here is the celebrated grotto, whence the hermits could ascend, by means of an iron chain, to the " Cradle of Bethlehem " and " Abraham's Tent," as the Kazbek peak is variously known to the native Christians.* River Systems — Kuua Basix. The counterforts and terraces falling from the snowy crest of the Caucasus form the various chains of the " Black Mountains," beyond which they develop Fig. 30. — PASSANAlhl, ox THE TlFLtS-VLADIKAVKiZ EoCIE. into a vast semicircle round the Kabarda plains, terminating northwards with the isolated mass of the Besh-tau. Here the streams converge towards the centre * Mean height of the Caucasus hetween the Elbruz (18,820 feet) and Adai-kokh (15,485 feet), 1 2,670 feet. Chief peaks :— Feet. Zikari 10,430 Zilga-kokh 12,840 Tepli . . . . . . . f4,000 Mamisson Pass Krestovaya Gora Besh-tau Feet. 9,540 7,542 4,670 C6 ASIATIC EUSSIA. of the amphitheatre, like the Alpine torrents collected in the plains of Piedmont, and thus is formed the Terek, the Po of the Caucasus, flowing thence in a swift and copious stream towards the Caspian. Still the waters descending from the more advanced spurs of the Caucasus do not join the Terek, hut drain through the Kalaus and Kuraa north and north-eastwards to the steppes. The Kalaus is a true steppe river. With the melting of the snows in spring it overflows its hanks far and wide; in summer its stream contracts more and more as it recedes from the hQls, and at last runs quite dry before reaching Fig. 31. — The Eleriz Group. From the Map of the Eussian Staff. Scale 1 : 430,000. C Perron 9 Miles. the Mantch depression. It also presents the remarkable phenomenon of a double discharge in the direction of the Eusine and Caspian. Entering the Manich depression at the watcr-jsarting, its floods, arrested and divided into two streams by a small eminence, are diverted west to the Manich of the Don, east to that which flows to the Kuma delta. Steep banks enclose a bed 2 to 3 miles wide, bearing witness to its former importance. But in this space, large enough to con- tain the waters of the Nile or Rhone, nothing now flows except a sluggish stream winding its way from marsh to marsh through its sedgy channel. EIYEE SYSTEMS -KUMA BASIN. 67 The Kuma basin is more extensive than that of the Kalaus, and the streams by which it is -watered flow from more elevated ground, some of them from moun- tains covered with snow for the greater part of the year. On issuing from its upper valley the Kuma is already a copious river ; but after receiving its last regular affluent, 150 miles from the Caspian, it gradually contracts as it winds through the steppe. A portion of its waters is evaporated, and the rest is diverted right and left to the pastures of the Nogai Tatars and Kalmuks. It often happens that about 60 miles above its former mouth the last drop is turned aside by the dams of the natives. At one time the quantity of water in the Kuma basin was much greater than at present, and a delta began at the point where the river now Fig. 32. — Ramification of the Kalaus. From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 620,000. A ' vi, •■ •*..--.?-:- A>t:.,.,^ Ac- •"•■ LoFQ. 43°50- 44=20 Kurgans. C Perron _». 12 Miles. runs dry. The northern branch flowed to the Western Manich, whose bed is now replaced by the lakes and tarns of the Huiduk, strung together like pearls on a necldace. The two other branches of the Kuma, also indicated by fens, pools, and channels, run nearly parallel towards a bay in the Caspian still known as the Kumskiy Proran, or "Mouth of the Kuma." Exceptionally high floods occa- sionally sweep away the dams constructed by the Nogai Tatars, and the lower beds are then temporarily flushed, as in 1879, when the yellow waters of the Kuma again reached the Caspian. Neither the Kuma nor the Kalaus discharges water sufficient to feed a Ponto- Caspian canal, and even if such a project wore carried out, Serebrakovskaya, the 68 ASIATIC EITSSIA. intended port of the Kuma, would be inaccessible to vessels drawing more tban 2 feet of water, while those drawing over 4 feet could not approach within 4 miles of the place. The Terek. The Terek is not one of those rivers which, like the Manich and Kuma, run out before reaching the sea. Its chief sources rise in a cirque about 8,300 feet above sea-level, and it is already a large stream before issuing from the region of Fig. 33. —Delta axd Flooded Districts of the Lower Terek. According to Litvinov. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. r.ofG 46° 20 47'QO- C PerrOf* a^ Old Beds of the Terek. Flooded Lands. Bursting of the Dyke. Terek Delta in 1841 . . 16 Maes. snows and upland pastures. After skirting the Kazbek group on the south and west, it flows from basin' to basin through a series of gorges down to the plains below Vladikavkaz. At the foot of a vast declivity fiUing the bed of an old lake it collects the waters of the Gusel-don, Fiag-don, Ar-don, and several other rapid streams, beyond which it is joined by the Urukh, and its largest tributary the Malka, with its affluents the Cherek and Baksu. Above the Malka junction it already discharges 17,500 cubic feet per second, and during its further course through the steppe to the Caspian it is joined by the Sunja, another large and THE TEEEK. G9 Fig. 34.— The Tekek Floods of 1863. From the M,ap of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 650,000. rapid river flowing through the country of the Chechenzes, and fed by numerous suljAur streams. One of these is the Melchihi, which is formed by the junction of five copious springs, so hot that several miles lower down it is still unpotable. Below the Sunja, notwithstanding the losses caused by evaporation and irri- gation, the Torek is still copious enough to form a vast delta, with a large number of permanent or intermittent branches frequently shifting with the floods, and changing their relative importance from century to century. One of these is the " Old Terek," formerly the most abundant, but now sur- passed in volume by the " New Terek." The delta comprises a coast-line of about 70 miles, and it seems to have been formerly con- nected on the one hand with the Kuma, on the other with the Sulak by some now partly obliterated channels. "West of the present delta are still to be seen the old shores of the Caspian, as well as a number of parallel lines of elongated sand dunes, or liigri, exactly similar to those of the Volga delta, and doubtless formed by the subsidence of the water at the time when the Casjoian became separated from the Euxine. According to Baer the alluvia of the Terek are encroaching on the Caspian even more rapidly than those of the Volga. Several inlets have already been choked up, and fishing stations which in 182-3 stood on the coast were, thirty years later on, nearly 10 miles from the sea. The whole coast-line between the Kuma and Terek has advanced from 1,000 to 2,000 yards since 1841 ; but all these new and badly drained tracts are still very unhealthy. During the months of July and August the labourers and gardeners complain of swollen heads, and the marsh fever subjects them to hallucinations of all sorts. The stream of the Terek is amply sufiicient to contribute its share towards the navigable canal with which Danilov proposes to connect the Euxine and Caspian. But pending this somewhat remote contingency, its waters and those of its tribu- E oFG.'^5°I0' ,.'46°50 C Perron. Old Beds of the Terek. KnrgaDS. . 12 Maes. 70 ASIATIC EUSSIA. taries are utilised in irrigating the bordering steppe lands. The Eristov Canal, fed by the Malka, traverses the northern plains, joining the Terek after a course of 140 miles. Farther north the Kurskiy Canal, also flowing from the Malka, turns the wheels of nineteen mills, and during the floods forms a stream 96 miles long. A third, running north of the Sunja junction, irrigates over 250,000 acres. If skilfully utilised, the waters of this river system, which abound in fertilising matter, might extend far north and north-east the rich Kabarda basin, which promises one day to become a magnificent agricultural region. Inhabitants — The Kabards. The Kabards, or Kabardins, who call themselves Kabertai, occupy nearly all the northern slope of the Central Caucasus between the Elbruz and Kazbek. They are ethnically closely related to the Cherkesses ; like them, a fine race, fonder of wars and strife than of peaceful habits, and distinguished from them only by their harsh speech full of gutturals and sibilants. Their princes claim Arab descent, though the difierence which some observers have detected between them and their subjects is probably due to outward circumstances and their occasional alliances with foreign families. The Kabards seem to have come originally from the north-west, probably even from the Crimea, whence they have been gradually driven towards the Terek, first by the JN'ogai Tatars, and afterwards by the Russians. They have retained something of their former nomad life, and are even now far more devoted to the breeding of horses and sheep than to agriculture. The land is still held in common, the woods and pastures remain undivided, and no one has any claim except to the plot tilled by himself. Such plots, when left uncultivated, revert immediately to the commune. Perhaps more than elsewhere in Caucasia daring robbery is held in honour, but on the condition of its being committed away from the village and tribe, and provided that the robber escape detection. In the latter case he would be exposed to the taunts and jeers of the community. Notwithstanding the Russian laws, it is also still considered highly honourable for the young man to carry off his bride. Some days before the nuptials he steals into the chamber where she awaits him, and whence they escape together. On returning to sue for pardon, he may calculate beforehand on the approval of all who still respect the old usages. The Kabards properly so called number about 32,000. At one time they were the leading nation in Ciscaucasia ; but owing to their exposed geographical posi- tion, they were the first to lose their independence. The Russians easily pene- trated through the Terek valley into the heart of their domain. Forts erected at intervals along the river divided the plains into two distinct regions — Great Kabarda on the west, and Little Kabarda on the east. Between the two runs the great military route over the Caucasus, and here the Russians consequently strove, in the first instance, to establish their power on a solid footing. As early as 1763 some of the Kabards, outwardly Christians, withdrew to Russian territory, settling in the steppe along the middle course of the Terek. ' At the beginning THE OSSES AND XOGAI TATARS. 71 of the present century upwards of 40,000, flying from Russian rule, sought a refuge amongst the Kuban Tatars, who welcomed and gave them lands, which are still held b}- the descendants of those " White Kabards." But the bulk of the nation remained in the Upper Terek basin, and their yovmg men were fain to accept service in the imperial armies. Amongst them were first recruited those magnificent " Cherkesses," as they are called, who figure so conspicuously on all state occasions. Eeturning to their hemes, they have ceased to be Kabards, and take pride not in their ancestral freedom, but in their present thraldom. The ancient usages also become slowly modified by constant intercourse with the ruling race, while their national unity is broken by the intrusion of foreign elements. Isolated villages are already occupied by Tatars, Uruspievtzes, Balkars, Nogais, grouped in democratic communities administered by the elders. The country is also traversed by Jewish usurers in search of fresh victims, while groups of Germans are settled here and there, generally on the more fertile lands. The " Scotch " colony north of Patigorsk has even been already completely assi- milated to these Teutonic settlers. On the other hand, the towns, growing daily in size, have become exclusively Russian, and the district north of the Malka has been en'Lrely Slavonised by the Cossacks, who began to make their appearance in this region during the reign of Tvan the Terrible. The Osses and Nogai Tatars. The Osses, more commonly but less correctly known as Ossetes, are as numerous in the Terek basin as the Kabards, but they have scarcely yet ven- tured on the plains, confining themselves mainly to the upland valleys between Slounts Adai-kokh and Kazbek, west and east. Two-fifths, however, of this nation dwell not on the northern, but on the southern slopes, in the valleys draining to the Eion and Kura, and even on a portion of the Trialetes Hills, south of the Kura plains. They are estimated at upwards of 110,000 altogether, thus forming one of the most important nations in Caucasia. But their fame is due not so much to their power as to the various theories that have been broached touching their origin and affinities. Some have regarded them as Alans ; others as the purest representatives of the Aryans in the Caucasus, akin either to the Teutons or to the Iranians ; while Yivien de Saint-Martin suggests that they may belong to the race of the A-ses, like those who migrated to Scandinavia. Lastly, Pfafi" thinks that they are at least partly of Semite stock. But, judging from the great variety of types and features, ranging from the ideal beautiful to the down- right ugly, they would seem to be a very mixed people, including Georgian, Armenian, Kabard, and other elements. In the Digor district, on the north slope, several noble families are undoubtedly of Tatar origin, whilst others in the southern valley of the Livash-don are of Georgian stock. Apart from numerous exceptions, the bulk of the people are decidedly inferior in physical appearance to the other races of the Caucasus. Their features are generally angular, their forms heavy, and they utterly lack that pleasant expression, that noble air and 72 ASL\TIC RUSSIA. graceful carriage, by wliich the Cherkesses and Kabards are distinguished. The fair type is more common than the brown, and some are met with blue eyes like the Scandinavians, while others resemble the Jewish dealers in their black or brown eyes, and even in their wheedling voice. But whatever be their origin, their speech belongs unquestionably to the Aryan family. Their national name is Iron, and their country Ironiston, words sug- gesting the Iran of Persia. The Digor dialect has a large mixture of Tatar and Cherkess elements, but the pure speech still current in the upland vaUeys, while ruder than that of the lowlands, abounds in Aryan roots. In their manners and customs the Osses seem also to betray their relationship with the Western nations. They differ from the other Caucasians in their use of the bed, table, and chair ; they salute in the European fashion, embracing and shaking hands as in the West ; lastly, they brew from barley, and drink their beer from tankards exactly like those of the North German peasantry. In the upper valleys, where wood is scarce, they live in stone towers of great age ; but lower down they build little wooden houses like the Ali^iue barns, shingle-roofed and weighted with heavy stones. On the whole the Osses do not reflect much credit on the Aryan race. Physically inferior to their highland neighbours, they cannot compare with tliem in pride, dignity, or courage, although Freshfield calls them the " Gentle- men of the Caucasus." Like their neighbours, thej' have always been ready to offer themselves to the highest bidder, taking service xmder the Byzantines, Greeks, or Persians, and returning to their homes to spend in revelry the fruits of their plundering expeditions. They had been so debased by this mercenary trade that they became confirmed marauders, worshipping Saiibareg, god of brigandage, who rides a black horse, accompanying and guiding the freebooters on their predatory Incursions. But though stUl ready for murder and pillage when no danger Is rim, they took care not to defend their liberty against the Russians at the risk of their lives. Although masters of the central valleys, and consequently of the most important strategical points in the Caucasus, they left the Cherkesses in the west and the Lezghians of Daghestan to fight and perish separately. Instead of occupying the foremost rank In the wars against the aggressor, they waited till victory had decided in favour of the Russians to make up their minds. Poverty had made them the prey of every foreign speculator, and to put an end to all further disputes touching the ownership of the land, the Russian Government declared all the lowlands State property, and removed thither the " unsafe " hUlmen. Most of the Osses used to call themselves Mohammedans, but now they pretend to be Christians, and revere St. Nicholas no less devoutly than the prophet Ellas. Besides, they had already changed their religion three times during the ten last centuries, and ia spite of their present Christianity they practise polygamy, aggravated by the fact that the first wife treats the children of the others as slaves. Pagan practices even reappear beneath the official religion and the remains of the Moslem creed. During Holy Week they make offerings of bread-and-butter on the altars of the sacred Li8RAf?V OF THE JNIVFRSiTV^f ILLINOIS. TOPOGEAPHT. 73 groves, in the grottoes, in the former Christian shrines, and then devour the sheep victims of the sacrifice. Their most revered monuments are the sappads, or ancient graves, octagonal structures from 12 to 16 feet high, terminating in a pyramidal roof pierced with holes. In some Oss and Cherkess villages the sappads are numerous enough to form veritable cemeteries ; but since the middle of the century no new ones have been allowed to be built, because of the gases escaping from them and poisoning the atmosphere. Of the non-Caucasian peoples the most numerous iu the Kuma and Terek basins are the Nogai Tatars, who roam mostly over the eastern steppes, and along the shores of the Caspian and brackish lakes filled by the winter rains, dried up under the summer suns and winds. Akin to those still met here and there on the banks of the Kuban, and partly descended from the old masters of the Crimea, the Nogais are true Asiatics. Like their poor neighbours the Stavropol and Astrakhan Kalmuks, they dwell in felt tents, and when removing to fresh pastures they place their children in the panniers carried by the camels on whose hump the women are perched, and in this order the caravan crosses the desert wastes. Thus are the familiar scenes of Central Asia repeated on the western shores of the Caspian, though this Asiatic region is being gradually contracted, according as the Mongoloid populations are being driven back by the Russians. During the last fifty years the Kogais of the Caucasus have fallen from 70,000 to half that number. In features, stature, and carriage most of them have become Mongolians, assuming by mixture the flat face, broad nose, prominent cheek bones, small and oblique eyes, high brow, and scant beard of the Kalmuks. They are of a gentle and kindly disposition, but wedded to their old usages, haters of aU change, and resisting Slav influences except along the river banks, where tillage and the fisheries bring them into constant contact with the Russians, and where poverty obliges them to hire themselves out to the Armenians and Cossacks. With the sad temperament of all MongoKans, they derive their national name, with a sort of melancholy irony, from a word meaning " Thou shalt be wretched." Some thousands of Turkomans also live in the neighbourhood of Kizlar. According to a tradition, based apparentlj' on a faint reminiscence of submarine geology, these Turkomans crossed over on dry land from the Krasnovodsk headland to the peninsula of Apsheron. Topography. Patigorsk (in Russian "Five Hills"), the largest town in the Kuma basin, lies at the southern foot of the Mashuka, an advanced spur of the Besh-tau group. This five-crested porphyry cone rising in the middle of the plain was at all times a rallj-ing-point for the steppe nomads. Hence Patigorsk occupies one of the spots in the Caucasus most frequented by divers tribes, Kabards, No»ais, Cossacks, and others, and it has now become a rendezvous for the Russians of all the surrounding provinces, and even for strangers from the rest of Europe. Patigorsk is, in fact, one of the thermal stations whose abundant sulphur springs are held in 74 ASIATIC RUSSL4. the highest repute, audis more frequented than all the rest of the hundred watering- places in Caucasia, with their seven hundred different mineral springs, as enume- rated by Ciiodzko. Within a radius of 24 miles the Patigorsk medicinal waters comi^rise a complete series of such as are recommended by modern therapeutics. The twenty springs in Patigorsk itself, with a temperature varying from 85° to 110° Fahr., and yielding on the average 2| gallons per second, are typical sulphur springs. About 12 miles to the north-east the station of Jelesnovochk — that is, " Iron Water " — indicates by its very name the nature of its twenty springs, which Fig. 35. — Patigorsk and the Eeoiok of Thermal Wa-ers. From Ihe Hap ot the Eiissiln Staff. Scale 1 : 600,000. ?5^^?3?s: £eW'-c\ , ■ = r . '■ ^JefeznovcK]^ , : - y-,.. S hotlanHskaya .p( 44 in ' Patigorsk N- •n y^ w' od^^a^e j'. 40. — XoGAi YoVTii. accustomed, Hk(^ the Swiss aud Albauiaiis in former times, to hire themselves out as mercenaries to all the surrounding- kinglets. In their warfare they displayed more savag-ery than the Cherkesses, and, unlike them, carried off as a trophy llie right hand of their captives when forced to abandon them. The Lezg'hiaus uever fought in concert till during the final struggles against the Russians in defence of their hearths and altars. All are Molunnmedans except the Dido of the Upper Koisu vallev in Audi, who have the reputation of being de\il worshipi:)ers, because they endeavour to conjure the e\il one by sacrifices. Although much given to \\-ine-drinking, tobacco smokers, and observers of tradi- tional Christian and pagan rites, the Lczghiaus are none the less zealotis Smmites, and it was o'U'ing to their ardent faith alone that they were able for many years to forget their tribal and family rivalries, and make common cause in the ghazavat, or holy war against the infidel. Eally- ing with the Chechenzes round their fellow-countrjTuau Khazi-MoUah, and afterwards round his ward Shaniyl (Samuel), of the Koisu-bu tribe, they drove the Russians more than once liack to the plains, often conqjelling them to abandon their more advanced militar}' settlements and isolated garrisons in the hills. Their strength lay mainly in the spirit of freedom by which they were inspired, and which was kept ali^e by the deeds of their legendary hero Ifaji- Mtu'ad, renowned in the wars ^^•aged against the khans of the Avars. But when the aristocracj' of the nmhs, or governors, was gradually restored, the people, becoming enslaved to their chiefs, ceased to struggle with the same Surrounded on three sides by an ever-narrowing iron circle of forts aud military colunms, and seeing their territory cut up by great military routes, they were fain to yield after half their numbers had perished from disease, hunger, and the sword. When Shamyl surrendered in 18-59 his followers had dTA-indlcd to about four hundred armed men. After the contpiest the old family jealousies revived, and the Ijczghian districts are now the chief scene of sanguinary strife and murder. About one in e^•ery three himdred of the pojjidation is either killed or womided diu'ing the year, and the circle of Kaitago-Tabasseran, west of Derbent, has the melancholy distinction of harbom-ing more assassins than any other district in the em])ire. Yet in their neighbourhood dwell the peaceful Ukhbukanes, or Kubichi, \\ho are chiefly vigour against the Russians. THE LEZGHIAXS, TATS, AXD TATARS. 85 cug-aged in forgiug arms for the surrounding hillmen. Indispensable to all, tlicir neutrality is alike respected by all. This industrious tribe claims Em-opeau descent, but their national name of Frenghi, orFreuki — that is, Franks — is ju.stified neither by their features nor their speech, which is a Dargo dialect. In any case the}' are a very small community, consisting in 1867 of scarcely 2,000, dwelling in 400 houses. Some of the itxtgal, or tribal confederacies, acquired a considerable degree of prosperity, thanks to their connnon solidarity and individual freedom. Fig. 41. — Mount Glnib. Such was that of the live Dargo elans, whose popular gatherings, which resembled the S^^"iss landaycmcinden, wei'e held in a plain near Akhusha. This magal received refugees from all nations, and their- territory was the most densely peopled in all Daghestan. The Caspian seaboard, forming the historical highway of niigration and conquest between Europe and Asia, was natui-ally occupied by a motley population, in which were represented all the races who had made use of this military and commercial route. 86 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Hence Mongolians, Semites, Aryans, and Tatars arc now found crowded together in this narrow strip of coast. The Nogai Tatars have fixed their tents in the northern stej^pe bordered by the Sulak. The tract stretching thence to Derbcnt is occupied eluefiy by the Kuniik Tatars, numbering over 50,000, and many Armenian traders. Other Tatars, akin to those of Transcaucasia, dwell farther south in the Kuba district. The linrjita franca of all these races is the Turki dialect of Azerbcijan, although the Persians, Tats, or Tajiks, about Dcrbent and between Kuba and the Gidf of Baku, still preserve their language and usages since the time of the Sassanides, when they settled here. "With them evidently came the Jews, who also speak Persian, while their women wear the Iranian garb. But their Persian dialect is mixed with many old Hebrew and Chaldean terms, and according to some authorities those of Kuba, Baku, and Shemakha are descended from the Israelites, who were removed to Persia after the first destruction of the Temple by Salmanazar over two thousand five hundred years ago. The names of their children are those in vogue during the time of the judges, and which have elsewhere been obsolete for the last twenty-fi\e centuries, ilost of the Caucasian Jews, however, have become much mingled with, and c^"cn absorbed by, the Osses, Georgians, and especially the Tatars, and many villages kno^yn by the name of Jiit-kend, or " Jewish Town," arc now exclusively occupied by communities clainaing to be of Tatar stock. ToPOGUAPIIY. In the highland districts there are no toivns, though the Lezghian afds have often been crowded by thousands attracted by local festi\ities, or rallying round their warrior chiefs. Khunzah, fonnerlj' capital of the Avar Khans, is now a mere ruin, on a bluff commanding a tributary of the Koisu, and itself commanded by the guns of a Russian fort. Ghimri, above the junction of the two rivers Koisu, retains nothing but a reminiscence of the national wars, for here died Khazi-MoUali, and here Shamyl was born. Vedeno, on a lofty terrace within the Chechniya territory, is an important village overlooked by a Russian fort, which stands on the site of Shamjd's former citadel. Near it is Moimt Gimib, whose upper terrace, 40 square miles in extent, served as the last refuge of the Lezghian pi'ophet and prince. Temir-Khan-Slno-a, in the Kumik Tatar coimtry, stands at an elevation of 1,540 feet in a \i\\\q\ opening towards the Caspian. The lake, or tarn, whence its name, is now drained, although fever is here still endemic. The port of all this district is Pefrovsk, during the wars a place of some strategic importance, and with one of the best harbom-s on the Caspian, sheltered from the west and south winds, and affording good anchorage in 20 feet of water within 800 yards of the shore. Though of recent origin, Petrovsk has already supplanted its southern rival, Tarhi, or Tarku, which, with a Tatar popidation of nearly 12,000 at the beginning of the century, is now a mere village dependent on Temir-Khan-Shura. The narrow defile between the advanced spurs of the Tabasseran range and the coast is guarded by the city of Dcrbent, or Derbcnd, traditionally founded TOPOGEAPHT. 87 either by the Medes or by Alexnncler the Great, but more probably by one of the Sassanicles about the close of the fifth centur}'. This imique town and fortress is enclosed between two long parallel walls rimning from the hills to the sea, flanked by towers and inscribed sepulchral stones. Within this inclined parallelogram the houses and bazaar form in reality but one line of buildings somewhat imder 2 miles long. As implied by its Persian name, Derbent is merely a large forti- fied gateway, whence also its various Tatar and Arabic names. All the mediaeval travellers describe its walls as advancing far into the sea ; but nothing is now \'isible of this marine rampart, which may be due to a local upheaval. Between Fig. 42. — Derbent. Scale 1 : 200,000. /;.. 58M0 58-20 EoPG C Perron Traces of Old Wall, accordinj? to Eichwald. 3 Miles. the town and the present coast-line there stretches a broad strip of laud which was formerly perhaps imder water. West of Narin-Kaleh, the citadel com- manding it on the west, the wall, here also flanked with towers, foUows the crest of the hills in the direction of some distant peak. According to the natives this wall formerly crossed the whole range from sea to sea, and in any case it guarded all the lowlands at the foot of the Eastern Caucasus, for traces of it are still met at a distance of 18 miles from Derbent. There are few more industrious places in Eussia than this Persian to'mi, although its population is said to have fallen from 26,000 in 1825 to little over haK that number in 1873. In the district are 1,500 well- watered garden plots, jaelding wine, saffron, cotton, tobacco, madder, 88 ASIATIC EUSSIA. and fruits of all kinds. Some naphtha wells and quarries of bituminous schists are ■worked in the neighbourhood. Less pictui'esquelv situated than Derbcnt, Kuha resembles it in its jioiralation and pursuits, its inhabitants consisting chiefly of Mohammedans of the Shiah .sect engaged in gardening, and of some thousand Jews occupied with trade. The climate is so imhealthy that an attempt was made in 1825 to remove the to-mi to a more salubrious site some 10 miles farther north-west. But the people refused to follow the Eussiau officials, who were fain to retiu-u to the old town, ^\here, however, they reside only in ■winter. In the Samiu' valley the chief town is AJc/ifl, standing at the jimction of two torrents in the heart of the mountains. v.— THE INGUR, RION, AND CHORUKH BASINS. MINGRELTA, IMERITIA, SVANIA, LAZISTAN. This Transcaucasian region, recently enlarged by a slice of territory from Tui-key, has long been politically attached to Eiu'ope. The Greeks had thro^wn a huudi-ed and twenty bridges over the Phasis, and constructed a fine carriage road across the moun- tains between the town of Sarapanes, the present Sharopan, and the Kvira valley. To the Greeks and Romans succeeded the Genoese, and even when the Tmks seized the seaboard they did so as masters of Constantiuojjle and heirs of the Byzantine emperors. European influence has also made itself felt in religious matters, most of the inhabitants ha^•ing been Christians since the first centiu'ies of the Church, whereas the two great divisions of the Moslem faith have j)revailed elsewhere in Caucasia. Nevertheless the Ingur and Rion basins have long kept aloof from the general movement of modern culture, and some districts are still in a barbarous state. This region, the Colchis of the ancients, is equalled by few jjlaces for the sjjlendom- of its vegetation, its natural fertility and resoiu'ces of every sort. Yet it is but scantily peopled, with scarcelj- one-half of the relative population of France. The Ingur and Rion basins are both of them sharply limited by the Caucasus, Anti-Caucasus, and intermediate Mesk range. From Abkhasia to Lazistan the hiUs form a complete semicircle, whose lowest point, except near the coast, is at the Suram depression, 3,040 feet above sea-level. This vast semicircle is divided by ridges running parallel with the Great Caucasus into secondary segments, some of Mhich are completely isolated, and form little worlds apart. The Ujipcr Ingur valley, which has become administratively the district of Free Svania, forms one of these distinct regions, and is t^i^ical of those elongated troughs lying between two parallel crests at an altitude of about 6,300 feet, and skirted north and south by snowy ridges. Here the glaciers of the Truiber have carried their advanced moraines to ■within 2 miles of the Svan village of Jabeshi, in the coimuune of Mujal, and the village itself, like so many others, is built on MINGEELIA, IMEEITIA, SVANIA, LAZISTAN. 89 the detritus of moraines deposited by the okl glaciers. The glacial torrents forming the lugur are collected in the depression of Free Svania, which is enclosed by a transverse barrier rimning south of Mount Elbruz. Hence the Ingur escapes from its upper valley through a narrow and deep rocky defile, in which it flows south-west and south for a distance of 48 miles. From 15 to 30 feet broad, and commanded by granitic or schist escarpments 600 to 1,200 feet high, this gorge presents, nevertheless, a succession of smiling landscapes, thanks to the bushy vegetation of the river banks and to the little moimds of rocky debris at the mouths of the tributary streamlets. Previous to the military expedition of Fig. 43. — MoVTII 01' THE liiox. Scale 1 : 400,000. C JIUes. 1858 no route had penetrated through this gorge, and Svania communicated ^vith the Mingrelian plains only by a dangerous moimtain path. The gorges of the Eion and its head-streams lack the sublimity of those of the Ingur, although all of them present some delightful ^•iews. The Eion and Tskhenis, the two chief rivers of this basin, both rise amidst the snows of the Pasis-mta, a word almost identical with that of Phasis, given by the Greeks to the river no^^• kno\\n by the Georgian name of Eion, or Eioni. Separated at their som'ce by the Garibolo ridge, the two streams diverge more and more, the Tskhenis watering the Scania of the Dadians and Mingrelia, while the Eion flows through Eadsha and Imeritia. From the eastern valleys comes the Kvirila, which, 90 ASIATIC RUSSIA. after joiuing the Khaiii from the south, unites -with the liiouiu the fertile jjlain stretching south of Kutais. Here begins the okl inlet, which has been gradually filled in by the alluvia of these mountain torrents. "Where the Eion becomes navigable it is skirted by broad swamp}' tracts, mostly concealed by their dense aquatic vegetation, and in jjlaces even by thickets and forests. But few expanses of still water remain to recall the time when all this disti'ict was covered by the .sea. JVevertheless, near the coa.st there remains a renuiant of the old inlet, still known by the Greek name of Palaeostom, or " Old Mouth," and which is supj)osed to have formerly received the ^\•aters of the Pliasis. In the last century it seems to haAe commmiicated by a navigable channel with the sea, and its faima is still partly marine, although the water is no longer even brackish. It is in some places over 60 feet deep, and is separated from the Euxine by a straight strip of dunes, which the Eion has pierced, its alluvia, like those of the Ingur and other Mingrelian coast streams, gradually encroaching beyond it seawards. According to Strabo the Eion and its tributary, the Xvirila, were navigable to Sarapanes, 90 miles from the present mouth, whereas boats now stop at Orpiri, which is about one- third of that distance, and during low water, from July to December, there are scarcely more than 20 inches in the channel. The momitains forming the watershed between the Eiou and Kui'a basins, towards the east and south-east, are continued uninterruptedly by the Suram Hills westwards to the Lazistan coast range. These mountains, imposing even in the pre- sence of the Great Caucasus, rise above the forest zone to the region of pastures, some reaching an elevation of 8,000 feet, but all falling short of the snow-line. Westwards the Ajara, or Akhaltzikh rauge, which is the last section of the chain, skirts the Euxine at a distance of little over half a mile from the coast.* Seen from the sunnuits of these Lazistan highlands, which were annexed to Russia in 1878, the land presents the aspect of a storm-tossed sea. Here the highest point is the Karch-shall, south-east of Batum, which is 11,430 feet above sea-level, while the mean elevation scarcely exceeds 8,000 feet, or about 2,000 feet above the forest zone. Mount Arsiani has all the appearance of an extinct volcano, and lava streams have been discharged in prehistoric times from several neighbour- ing summits. Their upper slopes are clothed with rich pastures, whose flora is much the same as that of West Europe, while the fruit trees of the valleys rival those of the southern slopes of the Caucasus. Lazistan is an earthly paradise, where the natives have generally shown a keen sense of natural beauty in the choice of the sites for their villages. Each of these ^■illages commands a lovely prospect of flowery meads, steep rocks, mountain torrents, cascades, chimps of trees, and scattered hamlets. • Chief elevations of the Ajara range : — Feet. Nepis-tzkaro, south of Kutais 9,485 Xagebo 8,72« Sagalatlo 8,265 Chekhatai 3,355 CLIMATE— FLOEA AND FAI'XA. 91 All tlu' waters flow-iiig fi-om the Arsiani Hills westwards reacli the Chorukh either thruugh the Ajara or the Iiiiarshevi. The main stream rises south of Trebizond, and after recei^•ing its lirst affluents flows parallel with the coast and the Upper Eujjhrates valleys. In this part of Asia Minor all the hills, plateaux, and valleys run uniformly south-west and north-east. But after a course of about 180 miles the Chorukh, now swollen by the imited waters of the Tortimi and Olti, eseajies directlj' towards the Eiixine through a deep gorge intersecting the coast range. Beyond the defile it has formed an allm-ial plain projecting beyond the normal coast-line, and thus ser\'ing to shelter the harbour of BatCim from the west. .Although little inferior in vohmie to the Eion, the Lower Chorukh is even less navigable than the ilingrelian river. This is due to its ciu-rent, which is so rapid that boats taking fom- or five days to ascend fi'om Batum to Artvin make the return trip in eight hours. Climate — Fi.or.v and Favxa. - The climate of Transcaucasia is one of the most favom-able for vegetation in the temperate zone. Here plants are intermingled in the greatest variety, and assume their loveliest forms. Thanks to the abundant rainfall and to the barrier opposed by the Great Caucasus to the parching north-east winds, the various forest and cidtivated species attain a greater elevation than in most other places enjoying the same mean temperature. Thus the walnut flom-ishes at 5,500 feet in Svania, where the white mulberry and the vine are found at elevations of 3,000 and even 3,400 feet, while in the Upper Eion valley the cotton-tree is met as high as 2,110 feet. In general the vegetation of West Transcaucasia resembles that of Central Europe and the French Atlantic seaboard rather than that of the Mediter- ranean shores, although in many respects the Mingrelian flora seems to belong to both zones. The indigo plant grows by the side of the cotton-tree on the banks of the Eion, where maize is the prevailing cereal. The tea plant is even said to occiu- in Lazistan, where the camphor-tree has been acclimatized. In the flowering season the pomegranate groves give to this region the aspect of a vast garden ; but, on the other hand, the eucah-ptus, so usefid for its febrifugal properties, has failed, owing to the severity of the Caucasian winters. The orange also, which formerly flourished at Poti, has disappeared from Transcaucasia since the middle of the last century. The coast region is subject to excessive moisture, while elsewhere there is rather an excess of dryness. The mean temperature of Kuta'is (58° Fahr.) is somewhat higher than that of the coast towns, an anomaly due to the fierce and parching east wind often prevailing in the Eion valley. This wind loses its virulence as it proceeds westwards, so that at Poti it is no longer disagree- able, and ceases altogether at Eedut-Kaleh. The magnificent Mingrelian and other Western Transcaucasian forests have been exposed to fearful ravages, especially since the finer timbers have been sought after by French and other foreign traders. The walnut has nearly disappeared from all the accessible lowland tracts, while the destruction of the upland forests 92 ASIATIC RUSSIA. is slowly moclif jing the aspect of the country. Yet but little of the cleared land is brought under cultivation, the primitive methods of tillage still prevail, and no pains are taken to improve the %"ine, which is here indigenous. Under the imivcrsal apathy many cidtivated tracts liave become overgro\\m with bracken, while the proprietors, after an absence of a few years, no longer recognise their former farmsteads, now concealed amidst the rank vegetation. The Ingiir and Eion basins are no less noted for their magnificent faima than for tlieir rich and varied flora. Free Svania, says Eadde, " owns the finest cattle in the world." There are two excellent breed.s, one small and sprightly, the other strong, majestic, and acbnirably proportioned. This is the Ukranian race intro- duced b}' the Ciscaucasian Tatar traders into the Upper Ingur valley, where, imder new climatic conditions, its coloiu' has become modified, often assmning the .shades and stripes of the tiger. The horse, although not niuuerous in the upland valleys, is also noted for his strength and action, while the Svanian mules and asses fetch three or four times the price of the lowland breeds. The goat and other smaller domestic animals are likewise distinguished for their sjTumetrical forms and other excellent properties. In the lowlands the marsh fevers are no less injm'ious to the animals than to man. Here the Mingrelian peasantry fail even to rear poidtry, which Toropov does not hesitate to attribute to the malaria. IxHABiTAXTs — The Svaxs axd Eachiaxs. The natives themselves are far from being a pure race. Amidst a great variety of tj^Des the contrast presented by the fair and bro^vn iliugrelians is very striking. The former are distinguished by a lofty brow and oval face, the latter by broad features and low forehead, though both are alike handsome and of gracefid car- riage. From the remotest times the eastern shores of the Euxine have been visited by friends and foes of every race, many of whom must have introduced fresh ethnical elements. Arabs, and even negroes, fljang from their Turkish masters, have contribiited to increase the confusion. Yet, however numerous were the crossings, all have become blended together, jointl}' tending to develop the beauty of the original type. In the Mingrelian lowlands, and especially on the advanced spiu's up to an altitude of about 3,700 feet, nearly all the men are handsome. But in the heart of the highlands, where the struggle for existence becomes more intensified, the features, especially of the women, are often even ugly. Goitre and cretinism are frequent amongst the Svans, and as we ascend the Ingfir from the region of maize to the snowy pastures, the change in the appear- ance of the inhabitants is analogous to that which is observed by the traveller passing from the Italian lakes to the Alpine gorges of the Yalais. The Svans, who occupy (he Upper Ingur and Tskhenis valleys, are evidently a mixed race, although fundamentally akin to the Georgians, to whom they are also allied in speech. They were formerly a powerful nation mentioned by Strabo, and in the fifteenth centiu-y they still held the Upper Eion valley. The present SS'SS TYPES. INIIABITAKTS— THE SVANS AND EACHIANS. 93 survivors seem to descend mainly from fugitives driven from the iJIingrelian plains In' oppression and the calamities of ^-ar. In the secluded valleys bor- dering on the glaciers they fo\md a secm-e retreat, ahnost severed by physical barriers from the rest of the Tvorld. More accessible are those of the Upper Tskhenis basin, who have consequently had to endure the hardest feudal rule under jjrinces binding them to the glebe. This branch take the name of Dadian Svans, from the ancient Georgian princeh' title of ''Dadian" assumed by the governing family. They are scarcely to be distinguished fi-om their Imeritiau neighbours, and their speech is a pure Georgian dialect. The Dadishkalian Svans. in the western division of the Upper Ingur basin, are also under a feudal lord of Kumik Tatar stock ; but being regarded as serfs, they -were emancipated at the expense of the Russian Government when serfdom was everywhere officially abolished, The eastern communities of the Upper Ingftr have long maintained Fig. 44. — Upper IsgCk Valley. From tte Map of the Eiissian Staff. Sc.-Ue 1 : 840,000. C Perron . 12 Miles. their independence, and are still often distingui.shed by the epithet of " Free," although they took the oath of obedience to Russia in 1853. And in many respects they are still really free, recognising neither lord nor master, and rejecting even the control of the clergy. In the conmiunal gatherings all have an equal voice, and important decisions require to be adopted imanimously, the opposition of a single member causing the whole question to be postponed imtil imanimity can be secured. Nor does the commime interfere in personal quarrels, which are regulated by the lex talionis. J^owhere else in the Caucasus are the laws of vendetta more rigorously adhered_to, so that few are met who have not killed their man. All the houses along the Upper Ingiir are real fortresses, perched on rocky eminences, and commanded by square watch-towers 60 to 80 feet high. The doors of these keeps are on the second or third story, and can be approached only by rude ladders formed of the stems of trees. Hereditary animosities greatly contribute to the reduction of the population pent up in the bleak valley of Free Svania, or Jabe-Shevi ; yet it is still so dense VOL. VI. H 94 ASIATIC EUSSIA. that the people are obliged to emigrate to the neighbouring tribes. In the clays of their military power their j-oung men left their homes as conquerors, often imder- taking plundering expeditions to the plains, and even in the fourteenth centurj- they were strong enough to burn the city of Kutais. Till recently the excessive popidation was also checked by the practice of infanticide, in which most of the girls perished, while in hard times gro-mi-up children were sold at prices varjong from £30 to £50. The .small amount of trade carried on by the tribes lower down is monopolized by the Jews, \\"ho arc grouped in the ■\-illage of Lakhauiidi. These Jews are distinguished from their brethren elsewhere by their warlike habits. But although practising Christian rites and calling themselves Svans, the hillmen of the Upper Ingur contract no alliances -n-ith them, and even refiise to eat at their table. All the Svans, estimated at over 12,000, are classed amongst the Christian tribes of Caucasia, and even claim a sort of pre-eminence amongst their co-religionists, jDretending that their ancestry were baptized by Christ himself. But their Chris- tianit}' has been develoijed in a somewhat original manner imder the influence of older rites. Thus their little chapels, large enough to accommodate about a dozen, have crj-pts filled with the horns of the chamois and wild goat, which are objects of great veneration. The priests, or " j)apas," form a distinct hereditary caste, though their only jjrivilege is exemption from the laws of vendetta. Although not obliged to keep the lower part of the face covered, the women pass a bandage over their mouths when singing national or religious songs, possiblj' to prevent the devil from entering. All the Svans are also bound to silence when on the march, or chanting sacred hj-mns, for the least word might draw down the tempest. Analogous sujierstitions occur amongst the Norwegian fishermen, the Buriats, and the American hunting tribes. The district of Racha, comprising the Upper EIou valley, is larger and more populous than the western basins of the Tskhenis and Ingur, and has always offered a route to graziers, traders, and even warlike bands crossing the Caucasus obliquely from the Georgian to the Terek lowlands. Hence the Eachians, who, like most of the people in the government of Kutais, arc of Georgian race and speech, are more civilised than their Svanian neighbours. But they also are too numerous for their largely unproductive territory, so that thousands are forced to emigrate to the lowlands, seldom returning ^vithout ha-s-ing amassed a small fortune. Most of the carpenters and sawj-ers met with in Imeria and Mingrelia are Eachians. The Imeritians, Mixgreliaxs, a>"d Lazes. The Georgians of the Upper Eion basin bear the general name of Imeritians, or more properly Imerians ; that is, "People of the other side," in reference to the Suram Mountains separating them from the bidk of the nation. The term Imereth, or Imeria, has been applied, with the shifting of the border peoples, at times to all "Western Transcaucasia, at times only to its upper section, Mingrelia being usually reserved for the low-lj'ing region comprising the alluvial lauds and coast district. Thanks to their damp, miasmatic, and enervating climate, the Mingrclians are 17 -(^»\\ ^■■M^'Jn^>-;^X • 1 ) ./^ '^ ',,/ ^ v^. THE IMEEITIANf?, MINGRELIANS, AND LAZES. 95 mostly of an indolGnt temperament, while their brethren who have migrated to the dry district of Tiflis are noted for their active habits. A repugnance to labour was also naturally fostered bj' former devastating inroads, incessant intestine warfare, and the complete thraldom of the peasantry to their nobles. Here was represented ever)' variety of serfdom, and imtil 1S41 the priests themselves were classed as serfs. Even in recent times the jMingrelian princes were accustomed to apjily IDcrsonally for their tribute. Followed by courtiers, retainers, falconers, dogs, and horses, they would swoop do'mi on some unfortimate vassal, living at his exijcuse as long as the provisions lasted, then betaking themselves elsewhere, and thus making a romid of I'evelry as self-invited guests, and leaving ruin in their wake. No women, especially if well favoured, were safe from these despots, who Fig 4.5.— MixGiiELi.ix Lady. carried them off and sold their children _ ... into slavery. Although generally too weak to resist, the Mingrelians were nevertheless occasionalh' driven by this oppression into revolt, as in 1857 and 1858, when they appealed to arms for the recovery of their captured women, and to get rid of the ^-oke ri\-cted by their masters round their necks. But all such efforts were quenched in blood, nor was serfdom finally abolished till three years after its suppression in the rest of the empire. But many of its effects still remain, and in a teeming land the Imerians and Mingrelians continue, like the wretched Lombard peasantry, to live almost exclusively on a mess of maize or millet resembling the polenta of Italy. The usual dress is a tattered smock fastened by a cord or strap to the waist, and instead of a hat a bit of cloth retained on the head by a string passed under the chin. The Mingrelian farmstead consists of a wretched hovel of wood or branches, surrounded by badlj^ cultivated maize- field.s, with a few lean pigs or goats, and one or two buffaloes wallomng in the muddy pools. Although till recently dwelling bej'ond the political limits of Russian Trans- caucasia, the Lazes of the Ajara and Chorukh basins are none the less akin in speech and race to the Mingrelians and Georgians. Those still subject to Turkey, and reaching westwards be3'ond Trobizond, are also of the same stock, though more or less mixed with other elements, while beyond these limits many geographical names show that in remote times the interior of Asia Minor was largeh' peopled by Georgians. Rosen has established the near relationship of the Laz and Georgian tongues. The language current on the banks of the Chorulvh differs little from Mingrelian, though that of the west coast is largely affected by Turkish H 2 96 ASIATIC RITf?SIA. and Greek elements. In their customs also the Lazes resemble the Imerians. Both respect old age, are extremely hospitable, and, -while full of curiosity, still maintain a dig'niiied reserve. Like most Caucasians, they are fond of display and rich attire, nor do they deserve the charge of indolence brought against them by careless observers, for their fields are well tilled and their houses kept in good order. The Laz women combine Math beauty and sjnmnetry of form a rare repu- tation for courage. The INfoslem Lazes have emigrated in large numbers to Turkish territorj- since the annexation to Ilussia in 1878, while the Christians will no\N- l^robably find their way to Tiflis and the Russian ports on the Euxine. The national character coidd scarcely fail to be modified under the Turkish reginac. Three centuries ago all the Tjazcs of the Upper Ajara valleys were Christians, and many villages still boast of well-preserved churches in the best Bj'zantine style of architecture. Certain commimes did not conform to the Moslem creed till about the close of the eighteenth century, and several, though nominally followers of the Prophet, are still practically Christian, the two faiths often over- lapj)iug to such an extent that it becomes difficult to saj- Avhere the one ceases and the o'ther begins. "With their religion the Turks also introduced their language into all the to^vns and large villages, so that the Laz dialect ceased to be current except in the remote rural districts. The Armenian colonies scattered over the land had also forgotten their mother tongue iu favour of Turkish, which must now in its turn slowly yield to Russian, just as the !Mohannnedau must give way to the Christian faith. ToPOfiRAPHY. The Rion valley, whose commercial importance -nas already recognised by the prehistoric Argonauts, and where, thirty centuries later on, the Genoese also went in search of the " Golden Fleece," promises once more to play a large part in the general development of trade. For some years past it has been crossed in its entire length by a railway connecting Tiflis with the Euxine, and this is but a first section of the line destined, sooner or later, to reach the Indus. But the site of the old Greek trading route, like that of their chief emj)orimn Colchis, has long been forgotten. The village of Shriropan, at the jimction of the Kvirila and Dzirula, claims to stand on the spot where grew the famous grove penetrated \>y the legendary Jason iu search of the " Golden Fleece." At the gorges of the Khani, south-east of Kutais, are the extensive ruins of the former Turkish fortress of Bagdad, whose Moslem inhabitants were driven into exile in the last eenturv. Nevertheless Bagdad is still a considerable village. Kutais, the present capital of the province, which comprises most of Western Transcaucasia, is happily situated at the junction of the three valleys watered by the Rion, Kvirila, and Khani, and at the head of the alluvial plain stretching thence to the coast. Standing on the first rising grounds of the advanced spurs of the Caucasus, it is well sheltered from the north ^^ind, while its gardens and parks are abundantly watered by the Rion, which traverses the iovra. Kutais, if not the traditional city of Medea, is at all events a very old place, for it is mentioned by TOPOGRAPHY. 97 Procopius under the name of Kotatission, and it eoustantly figiu-es in Georgian history, sometimes even as capital of the kingdom, and ahvays as a noted strong- hold. The old tovra stood on the right bank of the Eion, at the foot of the acropolis ; but the modern lies maioly on the opposite bank. Its most remarkable monimient is a ruined cathedi-al built by the Bagratides early in the eleventh century on the acropolis. On it have been modelled most of the other religious edifices in the coimtry, so that it is rightly regarded as the most precious relic of Georgian art. Thanks to its trade and local industry, chiefly hat-making, Kutais has recently made rapid progress, the jjopulation rising from 4,000 to r2,<)00 Fig. 46. — KuTAis A>'i> the Kion and Kvirlla Jcxcthix. From the Map of the Eossian Staff. Scale 1 : 440,000. U Perrgp , 6 Miles. in a few years. In the district is fomid a species of jet used for bracelets and other ornaments; but the rich Tk-N-ibula coal-fields, some 18 miles to the north-east, have been but little worked. Siuce 1879 the manganese deposits of the Upper K^-ii-ila valley, estimated at several millions of tons, have also attracted attention. Khoni, at the entrance of the Tskhenis valley, north-east of Kutais, is the market town of the Dadian Svans, and lower do^^ u is the large \-illage of Kulmhi, near the junction of the Riou and Tskhenis, in the most densely peopled district of Caucasia. Orpin', the river port of the Riou, at the junction of the Tskhenis, is inhabited by members of the Skoptzi sect, who arc mostly wealthy, though the trade of the place has fallen off since the opening of the railway. The two seaports of Redout- ASIATIC RUSSIA. ^'iiiiiip Is. I ii . i m Hi l!L Knkh and Foti are ratlicr sliunncd by traders c,u accoiuit of the local Icver.s and by sailors ou account of tlicir Lad anchorage. llcdout-Kaleli, ^^■llose name is TOPOGRAPHY. 99 composed of u Freucli aud Tiu-kish word, both meaning the same thing, is a poor Eussian village foimded in the present ccutuiT as the seaport of the rich Lower Ingur district, but now almost forsaken in favoui- of Poti, situated farther south, at the mouth of the river. Its houses, raised on piles and sui-roimded by palisades, stretch for a considerable distance along the imhealthy marshy banks of the river, whose floodings convert the to'mi t^^•ice a year into a peninsula. The harbour is rendered inaccessible to large vessels by the bar at the mouth of the Eion, all the engineering efforts to remove which have hitherto had but partial success. Hence it is little used except for shipping cereals aud raw silk. The exports amounted in Fig. 48.— Bati'M. From the Hap of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 320,000. ni»25 6 Miles. C. Perron 1876 to nearly 5,000,000 roubles, whQo the imports average scarcely more than 800,000. A much finer harboiu- is that of Batiim, lyiug 30 miles to the south-west, and ceded by Tm-key in 1878. Even before the annexation it was far more a Eussian than a Turkish port, for here the large Odes.sa steamers transhipped their cargoes in 60 feet of water to smaller vessels capable of crossing the bar at Poti. Althoiigh declared a free port by the treaty of Berlin, Batum has none the less ah'eady become a strong fortress. But with aU its advantages, the peniasula created bj- the allu^-ia of the Chorukh on the west is constantly increasing, and threatening to stiU further restrict the available space in the harbom-, which is already insufficient to accommodate more than twelve large vessels. But nothing would be easier than to connect the port with the river by a canal, which, with the railway now being constructed by the town of Uzm'geti to the Poti-Tiflis line, will render Batum the 100 ASIATIC RUSSIA. common outport of the liiou aud Clioriddi basius. The extraordiuary fertility of this region -^^ill thus seciu'e it a certain commercial imjjortauce in future. The chief exports arc cereals, cotton, the excellent apples known in Russia as " Crimean apples," and the od yielded by the dolphuLs taken in the baj'. The chief inland towoi of Russian Lazistau is Artvin, standing on the slope of a hill at the outlet of the gorge of the Lower Chorukh, and at the head of its navigation. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre, with a circuit of not less than 5 miles, including its gardens. Besides dyeing, which is its staple industry, it manufactiu'es silks and other woven stuffs. Its traders, mostly Ai-meniaus, have relations through Batum with Constantinople and Marseilles. Here the Laz race is said to reach its highest physical perfection, aud all the children might serve as models for the painter or scid^jtor. ArdanuJ, on a plateau south of xlrtvin, was formerly capital of the kingdom, and higher up in the heart of the mountains is Olti, ceded in 1878 by Tm-key. Like Art^•in, it is a city of fruits and flowers, and the chief trading-place between Ardahan and Erzerum. VII.— THE KURA BASIN. GEORGIA, TRANSCAUCASIAN TATAEY. The Kimi and Araxis may be regarded as ivnn, but independent streams. Of nearly equal length, and draining about an equal area, they remain separated throughout their iqjper aiid middle course by plateaux and lofty ranges. In the time of Strabo they had even separate mouths, and at j^reseut unite their waters in the neighbourhood of the Caspian, scarcely more than 20 feet above the level of that sea. Ethnically also the two river basins are qiute distinct. Both are now no doubt occupied by Tatar peoples, but the Georgians are still predominant in the Upper and Middle Kura valley, while the Araxis is chiefly occupied by Armenians. Politically the former belongs entirely to Russia, whereas the latter rises in Turkish territory, and for about half its course its right bank, with all its southern tribu- taries, waters Persian districts. RivEK SvsTKMs — The Kuka. The Georgian v'weY known as tlie Kura, or Kur, names recalling the Greek Kuros (Anglicised Cyrus), has its farthest source in the " Pearl Brook," or "Coral AVater," of the Turks, a torrent flowing from a cirque, or old hill-encircled lakelet, through a narrow gorge romid the east foot of the Arsiani range. It descends thence through a series of defiles and sudden ^\■iuding•s bet^veen the Ajara and Trialetes Hills, west and east, down to the plains of Tiflis. In one of these defiles, between Atzkhur and Borjom, it falls altogether about 740 feet through a succession of rapids in the space of 15 miles. The plateau whence flow its head- EIVEE SYSTEMS— THE KI'EA. 101 streams is very irieg-iJar, but it becomes much more uniform between Ardahan and Akhaltzik, Avhere it forms the ti-ue water-paiting between the Kiu-a and Araxis, ■with a mean elevation of fi-om 7,000 to 8,000 feet above the Black Sea. The depressions on this monotonous plateau are filled with lakes draining some to the Araxis, some to the Kui'a, while others have become brackish tarns with no outflow, and others again half dried-up fens and marshes. The aspect of the land still Fig. 49. — AXHALKALAKI Pl..iTEAU. Fi-om the Map of the Eussiao Staff. Scale 1 : 936,000. <:^.i^^/7?^^/%^^. ' rSi- L . . ( G C Perron 13 Miles, .speaks of a time when it foiiued a vast lacusti-ine basin with inlets ramifj-ing into the sm-roimding hills. This region was fonnerly lit up by a double line of active volcanoes rising to the east of Akhalkalaki, and running north and south vertically with the axis of the Trialetes range, lloimt Samsar, one of these volcanoes, has an oval crater nearly 2 miles long, and its lava streams stretch north-west over a large portion of the plateau. The Great and Little Abul, rising from a common base, resemble in form the double cones of Ai-arat, and fi-om their trachytic *^; 102 ASIATIC EUSSIA. jjorphyi-j' summits a northern \lew is afforded, embracing all tlic Caucasus from Elbruz to the Tebidos-mta. Other extinct volcanoes are disposed in crescent form roimd the cirque enclosing the romantic Lake Tojjorovan, •nhich, with its remains of lacustrine dwellings, itself resembles a Aast flooded crater. This sublime but gloomy tableland, -with its black moimtains, yawning abysses, and ancient lava streams, " still haimted by demons and goblins," presents a striking contrast to the ^^inding valley of the Kura, with its leafy shades and sparkling running waters, still occasionally broken by nar- Fijj. .50.-TATAE Type. I'o^v I'^'a gorges and coliminar crystalline cliffs many hxmdrcd feet high, and capj)ed with the -^^^^ ruins of ancient castles. All these volcanic highlands and rugged terraces rising to the west of Tiflis form a sort of advanced pro- montory of Asia Minor, about 60 miles long, within whose nar- row limits are brewed nearly all ^' the fierce tempests and hail- ""^^ IMnhtJ storms that bm-st on the neigh- V ^^^S 'j?^^^S)^1^«!*ii»^B^ bouring Karthalian plains. The ■^s^►^?V>^ Ji^^K W '^^'i^ frequency of these hail-stonns x: ^ / 1 l^^^K^' <-^ M — ^^^ compelled the peasantry to ^ *J^ /I ' ^^^S^^B|Lg^^i -^i^ '-^ abandon the cultivation of certain ^^5^^ ^iSS^^^^^''^ — districts in this region. A second M^ ■, "^ ^^^^^v^,^^J^^JyT:;;^^- zone of tempests stretches along V ^,., --^ ^ \ ^^^^^^^ the foot of the Yelizavetpol 1 * ^ \ % ~^ Moimtains, preventing the exten- ^ ' , *" ^^^w^^fe ^ ^^^^ of sericulture in consequence ' / i "■ . . . ".,'^^« \ ^ of the great mortality caused by thimder amongst the silk- ^ worms.* Before its junction with the Aragva, which is scarcely inferior in vohuue to the main stream, the Kura flows south and south-east mainlj- in a line with the Great Caucasus and with the Yora and Alazan, the two tributaries which join it after emerging from the upper • Chief elevations of the Upper Kura liusiu : — Feet. Kizil-Gjaduk, source of the Kura 10,350 Great Ahul 11,12.5 Samsar ; . 11,000 Godorebi 10,030 Enilekli 10,16.3 Koyerctiu-dagh, -svest of the ICura 10,11.5 Arjevan 9,19i5 Kanli Pass, between the Kura and ChoruUh 9,0.50 Kojor Pass, between the Aklialtzik plain and Titiis .... 4,390 EIVEE SYSTEMS-THE KUEA. 103 gorges. At tlic point wlicre it is crossed by the road from Yelizavetpol to Baku, a little below the couflueuce of these streams, the Kiira is already navigable for craft drawing 4 feet, although, owing to the scant popidation along its banks, the water highway of some 450 miles has hitherto been little utilised. Fishing is almost the only industry carried on along its lower course, which teems with fish Fig. ol. — TuE KuiiA AND Araxis Coxflvence. From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 675,000. C Perron Old Canals. 1-J Miles. probably more than any other spot on the globe. Hero the chartered company captures prodigious quantities of " \^-hite fish " and sturgeon, paj-ing a yearly revenue to the Government of not less than 120,000 roubles. Yet according to the descriptions of Pallas these fisheries were even still more productive during the last century, when as many as 15,000 sturgeon were taken in a single day. 104 ASIATIC EUSSIA. "WTienever the fishing had to bo interrupted for four-and-tweuty hours the Kura, here -190 feet wide and 70 feet deep, became one moving mass of fish. The diminution of their numbers has been attributed to the introduction of steam navigation, which frightens away the shoals ascending the river to the spa■^^•uing grounds. The miited \ohune of the Kura and .Vraxis is estimated at about ^-1,000 cubic feet per second, which, in proiiortiou to tlie area of their basin, is much less than that of the Eion, a difference due to the less abundant rainfall and greater evapo- ration in the region draining to the Caspian. A large portion of the Kura basin consists of almost waterless desert incaj)able of cultivation, though rich in herbage after the i-ains, and in spring frequented by Tatar graziers, who di-ive their herds to the upland pastui'es in summer. Even in the heart of Georgia, between the Km-a and Yora, and thence to the Alazan, we meet with rocky steppes destitute of permanent dwellings, and aboAe the triple confluence the stony and argillaceous land everywhere presents an aspect of monotonous aridity. During the last century rice was cultivated bj' the Tatars along the left bank of the Kiu-a, north of Yelizavetpol. But they were compelled by the inroads of the Lezghians to abandon their fiields, and nothing now remains except traces of the old irrigating canals from the Yora, and a few Tatar herdsmen, who are obliged to burrow in the groimd to shelter themselves from the cold blasts that sweep the bare Karayaz plateaux in winter. With the first spring days they gladly quit their wretched iindergroimd hovels, migrating through the beech forests southwards to the fine Alpine pastures of the Gok-chai. Agricultuke — lRRiG.vn<)-\ Works — CuM.vrE. In these lands civilisation has retrograded, since agricultiu-e has been replaced by a nomad pastoral life. Yet in winter during the low waters the Kiira and Araxis together have a total volmue of 6,800 cubic feet, and in smumer about 35,000 cubic feet jDer second might be raised for irrigation purposes. But nothing has been done beyond constructing the so-called "Mary Canal" across the Karayaz steppe between the Kura and Yora. Unfortunately this tract is very mihealthy, so that few venture to risk their lives in reclaiming the laud. The Tatar popula- tions, who have retained possession of their lands between Nukha and Shemakha, are still able to show the Russians how a jjroper system of irrigation may transform the desert to a garden. The torrents descending from the gorges of the Caucasus are arrested, on entering the plains, by dams which divide and subdivide them into countless rUls, luitil the last drojj of water is utilised before reaching the Kui'a. But the irrigation works might be met by channels from this river, by which the whole steppe could be brought imder cultivation. Some of the waste spaces are at present dangerous for caravans, owing to the want of fodder and the poisonous herbs, such as the Pontine wormwood, fatal to horses. The army sent by Peter the Great in 1722 against Shemakha thus lost all its artillery horses, and the same disaster overtook General Tzitzianov's arniv a. ccnturv thcreafteri AGEICT7T.TURE— lEEIGATION WORKS- CLIMATE. 105 A portion of tlie Karabagh and Shirikuni steppes between the Kura and Araxis, and those of Mugan stretching from the right bank of the Araxis and Lower Kiira to the foot of the Talish ^Mountains, were formerly cultivated and well- peopled difitricts. The great city of Bilgan, destroyed by Jenghis Khan, stood on a canal constructed fifteen himdred years ago across the Karabagh steppe, and when Timiu- restored the canal two centuries afterwards this cit^- reappeared and continued to floiu-ish till the last centm-y. East of the Araxis the traces have been discovered of nimierous canals running from its right bank eastwards across the steppe ; but these could not be restored without tapping the river above the old dams, either because its mean level has fallen, or because the land has been raised by its alluvia. One of the canals followed by Toropov is no less than 90 miles long, and on its banks are the remains of a vast city. Ruined caravanserais and ehoked-ujj cisterns also mark the site of other now abandoned trade routes. The plain is here and there dotted with barrows, and throughout the peninsida, formed by the jimction of the Kura and Araxis, there are ninnerous lines of earthworks, flanked by redoubts and hiUocks used as outposts. The general disappearance of the population, whose presence is shown by all these remains, dates from the Mongolian invasion of the thirteenth century, when those who escaped service in the armies of Batu Khan abandoned their towns and land, and took refuge in the mountains. The irrigating canals now became choked with mud, and the waters of the Kura and Araxis overflowed into the surrounding depressions, where they formed imhealthj- morasses, and even real lakes, such as that of Makhmud-Chalassi, though many of these have since evaporated, leaving nothing behind except saline tracts frmged ^\•ith a russet border of sickly vegetation. Elsewhere the land is covered as far as the eye can reach with the grey mugwort or the white-flowering delphinium. Yet it would be comparatively easy to restore its fertilitT to this region, which might support an agricultural popidation of at least two millions. The sm'vey carried out in 1860 showed that in the lower plains there are over 5,000,000 acres capable of being irrigated. A large portion of the steppe is covered with a black loam, which only awaits the fertilising waters to become one of the granaries of Western Asia. But even as it is the soil at the foot of the Talish ilountains is moist enough to grow vast crops of cereals, and here the Raskolniks have already flourishing villages, which have begiui to do a large trade since the restrictions on free intercoiu'se have been removed. Xowhere else in Caucasia has Russian colonisation been more successful. Formerly it was feared that the maiu obstacle to the reclamation of the land would be the insalubrity of the climate, caused, as in the French Camargue, by the decomposition of organic matter under a fierce sun. But this difficidty seems to have been exaggerated. The intense heats of these plains appear to have been fonuerly spnbolized by the midtitudes of venomous .snakes said to guard their approach. Even Plutarch tells us that the army of Pompey was arrested by fear of these reptiles, and so recently as 1800 the Russians imder General Zubov are said to have foimd the land in winter covered with vipers in a torpid state. But although wild beasts were even supposed to avoid this region, Toropov and other 106 ASLVTIC EUSSIA. travellers assure us tluit serioeiits and scorpions are so I'are on the ^lugan steppe that they cause no alarm to the graziers frequenting it. The}- dig up the ground, but only in search of truffles, which here abound. Land and water tortoises are also extrcmoly numerous ^vhcrc^■er there is un\ moistiu'c, and flocks of antclojDCs Fig. .52. — MoLTIIS OF THE Klll.l. Fi'om the Slap of the Eussian Staff. Scale 1 : 820,000. EofG 48°50' 49° 20' C Pcrrpn 12 Miles. are occasionally seen bounding over the plain, while the marshes and running waters of the delta attract vast multitudes of birds. Lower Kiu.i Basin- — Apshekox Pexixsii-a. Like the Piion, the Kura is continually encroaching on the sea, which it colours for a great distance with its reddish-yellow watei's. In the thirty-three years LOWEE KUEA BASIX— APSHEEON PENINSULA. 107 between 18"2n and 1862 the land advanced about o4 square miles. The main channel has also pierced the line of dunes continuing the normal coast-line, beyond -which it has ramified into two branches, each of which has developed a pcninsida bj' connecting islets and sand-banks with the mainland. Between the two advanced streams of the delta there are also numerous strips of laud, evidently formed by the alluvia of the Kura. Only the north-east swell created by the polar \vinds has reacted on these dejjosits, causing them to assume a crescent form, \\ith their concave sides facing seawards. The island of Sari, h'ing south-west of the extreme peninsula of the delta, is disposed in a similar manner by the same waves. All the Lenkoran coast has also been enlarged by the alluvia first carried seawards with the current, and then diiven landwards imder the action of the \\-inds. In the same way a broad belt of marshy land has been formed at the foot of the advanced spurs of the Iranian plateau. But these imhealthy tracts are infested by such dense clouds of mosquitoes that the Tatar natives are obliged to pass the night in pavilions raised like picturesque turrets into the purer atmosphere above their dwellings. The hilly district of Lenkoran, -wrenched by Russia from Persia, belongs geographically to that state, for it is merely the escarpment of the lofty terraces rising above the southern shores of the Caspian, and commanded by the Savalau volcano. By holding this district the Russian armies are able to reach -within their o-wn territory an elevation of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, whence they have no further difiiculty in penetrating into the Iranian plateaux. Here the land being abundantly watered bj' the rains brought by the northern winds blo-wing steadily from the Caspian, its flora .and famia differ from those of the Caucasus. We are alreadj' -^vithin the domain of the tiger, while some of the plants flourishing in the dense forests resemble those of the tropics. Still the arborescent vegetation covering the slopes of the Talish range between 650 and 6,000 feet corresponds rather with that of Central Em-oiDC. Few regions present a greater contrast in theu- flora than do the slopes of the Talish and the Mugan steppe, the arid parts of which latter yield only five species of plants. Ethnically, also, the difference is equally marked, for the Talish highlands already belong in this respect to the Iranian domain. In the district north of the Kiu'a, -n-hich still retains its old Persian name of Shirvan, a few eminences isolated in the midst of the plain seem to have formerly belonged to the Caucasian system, from which they have gradually become sepa- rated by the erosive action of running water. But this region has also been sub- jected to more sudden changes by underground agencies. Here earthquakes are stiU frequent, causing great damage, especially to the citj- of Shemakha, where in 1669 as many as 8,000 jjersons were in a few seconds buried under a heap of ruins. According to the local chronicles, the village of Lacha, lying farther south, was comijletely swallowed up, with all its inhabitants, flocks, and herds. Shemakha, with the industrious village of Boskal, was again wasted in May, 1859, after which the seat of Government was transferred to Baku, and most of the inhabitants left the place. Those who remained again suifered from a -violent 108 ASIATIC EUSSIA. shock in 1872. According to Abish tlio seismatic waves are here propagated north-west and south-east in a line with the continued axis of the Caucasus, and Shemakha consequently lies at no great distance from the centre of the movement. Explosions of burning naphtha occasionally throw up masses of earth and stones, accompanied with smoke and flames. The botanist Koch foimd the debris of one of these eruptions covering the stejjpe for a space of over half a mile, where all the crevasses were filled In- brackish water with a slight flavour of naphtha. The Apsheron peninsula, forming the eastern continuation of the Caucasus, together -n-ith the coast-line stretching thence southwards to the Kura delta, is the scene of constant igneous activity. Jets of gas, hot springs, mineral oils, mud Fig. 53. — Chief Regions or EARTHQu.iKES ix Caucasia. From the Memoirs of (he Geografhkal Soeitty of the Canoasns. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. C Perrgo IIMJ May 2Ist, 1859. June 20th, 1840. M.iy 30th and 31st, 1859. — — ^^^^^^^^^^— _ 150 Miles. volcanoes, and even lava streams bear witness to the internal commotion throughout the region, which, like the segment of a crater, encircles the Gulf of Baku. It would seem as if the forces by which the Caucasus was upheaved were here still at work endeavouring to continue the range across the Caspian. Yet a subsidence has, on the contrary, been going on during recent times, as shown by the building engidfed in the harbour of Baku, and by the tradition according to which the island of Nargin was formerly attached to the mainland. Khanikov has sho^^^l that since the tenth century the seaboard at the eastern extremity of the Caucasus has been subject to various oscillations, rising 60 feet above its present level, then sinking 18 feet below it, and again rising and falling alternately. The whole Apsheron peninsula, with the various islands continiung it eastwards, has evidently LOW-ER KUEA BASIX— APSHERON PENINSULA. 109 been uplieavod, but not iiiiifonnly, for the relief of tbe laud shows traces of nuuierous folds, due, doubtless, to side pressure. Mud volcanoes are dotted over the peniusida, all the depressions are filled with marshy soil, and the coast-line is disposed in curves, like those of the Kura delta. The " Holy Island," north of Apsheron Point, which assimies an analogous form, is of volcanic origin, like all those in the neighbourhood. Kumani, one of them, rose above the snrface in 1864, and Lozi, another, was the scene of three eruptions in 1876, during which stones were thro^vn as far as Cape Alat, on the mainland. Shoals of seals* frequent the coast of the peninsula, but most fishes are driven away by the exhalations of gas and naphtha. In many places these gases are liberated by simply piercing the siu-face of the land, and they are so inflanunable that a mere spark suffices to set them burning till extinguished by a strong wind or heavy shower. The flames will at times even bui'st forth spontaneously, and during boisterous nights the hillsides have been swept by sheets of phosphorescent light. Even in the middle of the sea the naphtha streams bubble up, clothing the rijDples far and near with a thin iridescent coating. Xear Cape Shikov, south of Baku, a gas jet produces such a violent edd}' Fig. .34. — OsCJLLATIOXS OF THE BaKU Co.lST Dl'RIXO THE LAST 1,500 Ye-VRS. According to Khanikov. tfff' JVt *3t 3tv «W^ lii» isrc tleo ^Rtt^ that boats are obliged to cast anchor to a^•oid being sucked in. Elsewhere the underground forces not only throw up jets of gas, iietroleum, and asjihalt, but upheave the very bed of the sea, as was lately seen when an islet rose to the surface near Baku. The legend of Prometheus, who stole fire from heaven, may, in the popular fancy, be possibly associated with the flaming hills and waters" of this region. The chief focus of the bm'nino' gases lies some 9 miles north-east of Baku, on the margin of a considerable saline pool near the ^"illages of Balakhan and Surakhau. The district, known by the name of Atesh-gah, has become famous as the liallowcd shrine of the fire worshijjpers. Yet this sanctuary, at least in its j^resent form, would not seem to be as old as is generally supposed, dating only from the seventeenth centmy, when the com-ts of the Tatar khans of Derbent, Shemakha, and Baku were much frequented by Indian traders. The " Fire Temple " is now a mere redoubt, tolerated in the corner of a vast naphtha and asphalt factory, which is directh' fed with combustible gas fi'om the imderground fii-es. The votaries of this * The Caspian Seal {Phoca Caspica) differs specifically froai that of Lake Baikal, though both are related to theEinged or Arctic Seal (Phoca futiila). Both are also referred by Joel A. AUen, " History of North American Pinnipeds," to a pliocene ancestor from the south.— Ed. vol.. \l. I 110 ASIATIC RUSSIA. temple have uo longer any notion of a ijositive creed, and on the altai", by the side of Hindu deities, are seen the vases associated -n-ith Parsee worshij), Russian images of St. ^Xicholas, statues of the Yii-gin, Eoman Catholic crucitixes, objects which are all treated Tvith like veneration. The commercial importance of this great natiu-al workshop has been much enhanced of late years, and the .sale of rich najihtha plots has already yielded over 3,000,000 roubles to the State. Xothiug can be imagined more .simple than the structm-e of these lime-kilns. It sirffices to light the gas escaping from the crevassed calcareous laj'ers, and the stones ai'e gradually reduced by the heat to the state desired by the lime burner. In private houses and workshops these jets are used Fig. oo. — The Apshekox Peninsula. Scale 1 : 450,000. 49' 40 LoFG 50 -SO C Pe, Mud Volcanoes. Naphtha Wells. Gas Jets. Submerged Enins. = — S MUes. for heating, lighting, and cooking, though the iUumiuating power of the Balaklian gas is much inferior to that of the artificial article, for it possesses far less carbon. To the internal pressure of the gas is due the rising of the naphtha, which is forced upwards through the sandy and .shingly layers below the superficial tertiarj' strata. With the petroleum stream there are carried up large quantities of .sand, which accumulates about the oriiice, where it gradually forms conic momids 50 feet high. So far the seven himdi-ed naphtha wells sunk in the neighboiu'hood of Baku have shown uo signs of exhaustion. They supply over five-sixths of the peti'olemn of the Caucasus. Between 1870 and 1S78 the yield was increased over tenfold, and quite a fleet of steamers and sailing vessels has been eqxiipped for the export of this pi'oduce. >!E INHABITANTS— THE GEORGIANS. Ill But immense loss is caused by the ignorance of those engaged in the trade. Thus a well at Balakhan, yielding 4,800 tons of nai^htha daily, ran waste for four weeks licfore a reservoir coidd be i^repared to receive the oil. The total yield of naphtha at Baku amounted in 1878 to about 7,000,000 ewt., of which nearly 3,500,000 c'wt. were exported. Inhabitants— The Georgians. In Central as in Western Caucasia the most numerous race are the Georgians, oi" Karthvelians, descendants of the Iberians .spoken of by Strabo. The statuettes found in the graves represent exactly the same type and the same style of head-dress as those of the present inhabitants, so that no change has taken place in this respect during the last two thousand years. Masters of the land from the remotest historic times, the Georgians have succeeded, if not in maintaining their independence, at least in preserving their ethnical cohesion and various national idioms. They formerly occuj)ied a ■wider domain, and although encroached upon at various times by Persians, !Mcdes, Armenians, Mongols, Turks, and now by the Slavs, their territory still stretches from the i^lains of the Kura to Trebizond, and from Mount Elbruz to Mount Arsiani. Of all the Caucasian peoples the Georgians, who are estimated at upwards of a million, form the most compact and homogeneous nationality. In Georgia is situated Tiflls, capital of all Transcaucasia. As a political state Georgia had its periods of prosperltj' and mllitaiy fame. Especially in the twelfth century, in the reigns of David the " Restorer," and of Queen Tamara, the Ivarthvelian kingdom acquired a decided preponderance over all the Caucasian lands, and the name of Tamara has remained popular from the Black Sea to the Caspian. In all the upland valleys .she is the theme of coimtless legends and national songs ; most of the nuns scattered over the land are supposed to be the remains of her palaces and strongholds ; as a rider of men the popular enthusiasm ranks her with Alexander ; as a saint ^vith St. George and the prophet Elias. But the period of Georgian ascendancy was of short duration, and the invasion of Jenghis Khan was followed by incessant warfare and civil strife, which ended only in 1802, when Georgia was officially incorporated in the Eussian Empire. Its geographical situation permitted the inhabitants to maintain their independence and become fused in a compact national bod}-. Most of the Karthvelians dwell on the plains, where the conditions of soil and climate oblige them to live as agricid- turists scattered over the land. Their territorj^ Is everj-where enclosed by lofty moimtains, whose occupants, pent up in their narrow, bleak, and xniproductive glens, cast envious glances on the lowlands, never failing to swoop do-mi whenever an opportimity is offered for making a successful foray. The Georgian territory is, moreover, divided into three distinct parts, clearly defined by forests and moimtain ranges. The Kura basin in the east, those of the Rion and Ingiir in the centre, and that of the Chorukh in the west, are so many detached geographical areas, whose inhabitants were naturally involved in different political careers. The severance of the Georgian nationality into distinct fragments was also rendered almost inevitable I 2 112 ASIATIC RUSSIA. b}- tlie form of the several districts, all of whieli arc greatl\- cloiigatod cast and west. The Karthvel, or Karthalians, jDrojicrlj' so called, -who have retained the collective racial name, are the Georgians dwelling east of the Suram Mountains, in the old lacustrine plain whose centre is occuiiied by the tovra of Gori, and which terminates at Mtzkhet, ancient cajaital of Karthalia. They become blended eastwards with the Grusians of Tiflis, whose name is frequently applied collectively to all the brandies Fig. .50. — Mtzkhet, Ancient C.ipit.il or Georgia. of the Georgian family. The Kakhctians, the easternmost of these branches, occup}- the Yora and Alazan 'Nalleys ; west of the Suram Mountains dwell the Imerians and Mingrclians in the Eion, Tskhcnis, and Lower Ingur basins; the Gui'ians hold the' northern slopes of the Ajara Moimtains ; the Lazes a portion of the Chorukh basin west of that range ; lastlj', the Svans, with a few other tribes, have found a refuge in the fa.stnesses of the LTpper Caucasus valleys. The various branches of the Karthaliau family cannot all of them converse together, largely INHABITANTS— THE GEORGIANS. 113 o^ving• to the foreign words that have crept luto the different local idioms. But the general resemblance is very marked throughout the whole region from Trebizond to Tiflis, while amongst the educated Karthalians complete unity of speech has been maintained by the works of all sorts that have been published in Georgian. At least since the tenth century there has flourished a Karthalian literature, beginning with a simple translation of the Bible and gradiuilly enriched by religious treatises, epic poems, songs, dramas, scientific writings, and more reccutl}' with translations of foreign works and periodical publications. Neverthe- less the cidtivation of the Georgian language and the intellectual development of the nation have been arrested bj- extreme centralizing tendencies. Since 1807 the Georgian archives and the valuable literary and historical documents found in Tiflis have been removed to St. Petersburg. Studied efforts are also being made to replace Georgian by Russian, and the latter language is now compidsorily taught in all the local schools. The national speech, by some grouped with the Aryan, by others with the Ural-.Utaic family, woidd really seem to stand quite apart, a view ah-eadj- held by Klaproth, and since confirmed by ZagareUi, who has paid the greatest attention to the structure of the language. Like the Basque in Europe, Georgian apjjears to be the survi^-ing representative of a form of speech formerly current throughout a far wider area, and absolutely distinct from the Aryan, Semitic, and Uralian linguistic stocks. The alphabet in use, at least since the tenth century, is derived, like the Armenian, through the Pahlvi and Zend from the Aramaean. "With the exception of the Lazes, who are mostly Mohammedans, the Kai'tha- liaus belong to the Greek rite, and to their patron saint, George, is with some probability attributed the name of Georgia, whence the Russian Grusia. I^orth of the Rion and Kura this saint is held in greatest veneration, whereas in the region south of those rivers, including the whole of Armenia, the worship of Mary has everj'where replaced that of Ma, or Maya, goddess of the teeming earth and of the harvest. The Georgians are strongly attached to their faith, and notwithstanding their naturally gentle disjjosition, they have always energeticallj^ resisted the successive religious jDersecutions of the Turks and Persians. The Byzantine style of their churches, introduced from Armenia, assumed in mediaeval times a certain originality, still represented by exquisite naves, belfries, and apses, dating especially from the tenth and two following centm-ies. Even in the remotest upland valleys the traveller is siu'prised to meet with churches in a remarkably pure style, mostly standing on pleasant hills in the midst of leafy thickets. Nearly aU are so built as to serve also as strongholds, while some are even subterraneous, betrayed by no outward signs, and capable of sheltering the community in troubled times. In Kakhetia the rockj- eminences of the Karayaz steppe overlooking the Yora vallej- are pierced with caverns, said to have been excavated as chiu'ches and convents in the sixth centm-y. In all the hilly districts of Karthalia the peasantry' are also acquainted with labyrinthine caves, the former abode of a troglodytic people. Hundreds of strange towers are also met, recalling the numgld of Sardinia, but of unknown origin and use, although each is associated with its special legend. 114 ASIATIC RUSSIA. The old luetliod of constructing dwellings has persisted fur over two thousand years. A^^lole ^-illages consist of nothing but holes dug in the ground or he^^^^ out of the rock, revealed from -n-ithout only by masses of foliage, or by clay roofs on which the women sit in the cool of the smiuner evenings. In most of the to^Tis many houses are also still covered, instead of a roof, with a layer of hardened earth about 2 feet thick, and inclined just sufficiently to allow the water to run off through the openings in the kjw \\"an enclosing the terrace. On this surface there grows a dense leafy vegetation, in which the Lepidiiim vesicariiun, a species of crucifera, predominates ; but it withers up in summer, and is got rid of bj- being set on fire, these nightly bonfires often producing a very startling effect as they blaze up suddenly, and as suddenly die out on the housetops. As regards health the clay terraces are far preferable to the Em-oi^eau roofs, as they maintain a warmer temperature in winter and a cooler in siunmer. Yet, through a blind love of everj-thing foreign, the upper classes in Tiflis have begun to build their houses in the Western style. The Georgians of the Kiu-a basin, like their Imerian, Mingrelian, and Laz kindred, fully deserve the reputation for jDhysical beauty which they enjoy. They have the same abmidant black hair, large eyes, white teeth, delicate complexion, lithe figures, small hands, that distinguish their western neighbom-s. Yet the api^earance especially of their women, who mostly paint, can scarcely be described as prepossessing. They are cold and imattractive, their featiu-es lacking the animated expression and bright smile which intellectual development might be expected to have produced. Most of the Georgians have a high, almost flushed complexion, due doubtless to excessive uididgence in wine, of which they are ever ready to take copious di-aughts in honoiu- of their friends, generally with the Tatar words, Allah Verdi, " the gift of God I " The Kakbetians especially, proud of their excellent ^-intages, consume large quantities, and before the ravages of the o'idimu, the usual allowance of the field labom-ers was here about half a gallon daily. This fiery wine, some of which might compare favourably with the best produced in Em-ope, is mostly consimied in the coim^try, and one of the most familiar sights in Kakhetia is the well-fUled ox or pig skins hanging at the doors of the shojjs, or crossing the coimtry in waggon-loads. In order to preserve the pliancy of the skins the natives have the horrible practice of flaying the beasts alive, and then smearing the hides ^^■ith naphtha. This imparts a disagreeable flavour to the liquor, to which, however, even strangers soon get accustomed. Notwithstanding the fertility of the land and relatively sparse population, the peasantry of the Km-a basin are generally poor, o-miing little beyond a few mangy cattle and sheep, whose wool looks almost like hair. Like the Mingrelians and Imerians, though to a less extent, the Georgians have suffered from the feudal system. However, since 1864 and 1866 they have at least ceased to be attached to the glebe, and serfdom has been abolished in Transcaucasia, as elsewhere throughout the empii-e. But the nobles, who have remained large proprietors, have not all of them yet lost the habit of treating the peasantry as beasts of biu-den. while practices .IVtKSlTVoflLLINU.ci. I liliiliii:' ll!!l»b i ^ n|il !lilllHI|'fl^!ll !> ftttitaWlllii* ihlllllllfl: IXHABITAXTS— THE GEOEGIANS. 115 begotten of .slavery in the people themselves Lave uot yet disappeared. They are for the nicst part uncleanly and listless, though their natui-ally cheerful, social, and upright disposition is gradually asserting itself. They are said to be rather less intelligent than the Caucasian races, and in the schools sho-n- less quickness than theii- Tatar and Armenian neighbours in mastering foreign languages and the sciences, though this may be partly due to the fact that the latter are maiuly townsfolk, -while the former are a rui-al popidatiou. Theft is a crime abnost imkno^\-n in the Georgian and Armenian commimities, the few cases of larceny that come before the Tiflis coiu-ts being mostly committed by strangers. At the same time many are addicted to contraband habits. K'or does their national legislator, King Yakhtang, seem to have entertained any high opinion of their general uprightness. "I have di-awn up this code," he unites, "but in Georgia no just sentence has ever yet been, nor ever -n-ill be, pronounced." Yet, however barbarous may have been the fonner Government, it remained for the Russians to introduce corporal pmiishment of the most degrading form. One of the most remarkable traits of the Georgian race is theii- love of song and the dance. They have no great musical talent, and their language, ^vith its numerous gutturals and sibilants, is scarcely adapted to melody. Yet none the less do they keep up an incessant chant all day long, accompanyiug themselves with the (Mra, or tambourine, and the balalaika, a sort of three-stringed guitar. Some will, so to say, adapt every movement to musical rhythm, and while weeding their maize-fields or engaged iu other tick! work, the men dispose themselves in groujDS, singing in various sets snatches of verse siutable to the work in hand. As thej' advance the chorus becomes more A-igorous, and theii' measm-ed movements more rapid. At the end of the furrow they stoji short, shift theii- places, and in reti'acing theii- steps renew the interrupted biu'den of their song. Despotic masters fi-om gloomy Russia attempted in vaia to impose silence on theii- Trans- Caucasian labom-ers. Unaccompanied by the glad music of the voice, the daily task hung heavy on their hands. Custom has also given force of law to umuerous feast-days analogous to the old holidays of "Merry England." On foot, on horseback, or in their ramshackle carts the whole popidation flocks to the scene, indicated from afar b}- some venerable chiu'ch or cluster of oak-trees, and here the song, the dance, trade, re\'elry, and religious rites all foUoA\- iu rapid succession. AYorship is itself performed with a sort of blind rapture. Pilgrims present themselves before the priest to have the iron collar removed, ^\-ith which they had s^^ubolized their temporary thraldom to the patron saint ; and when released they immolate to his honour the ram or the bidl, which afterwards supplies the banquet. Frequently some fair white-robed " spouse of the white George " \\ill ca.st herself at the feet of the faitliful, who must either step on her prostrate body or leap over it to reach the hallowed shi-ine. The Armenians, and even the Moslem Tatars, come to trade, are at times carried away by the religious frenzy-, and joiu in the chorus and Christian rites. To the sacred succeed the profane dances, A\-hich often assume the appearance of a free fight, the victors seizing the girdles of the vanquished, enveloping themselves in IIG ASIATIC RUSSIA. the ample folds of their hiirhax, or doiming their imposing ^(t/w*/^.?. Formerly the sham fights held in the streets of Tiflis in commemoration of the expulsion of the Persians ended in regular battles, often accompanied hy loss of life. The Khevsurs, Psiiavs, and Tushes. 4 As in the ■«-cst, so in East Georgia, the ethnical picture is completed by a group of highlanders, vrho had till recently maintained their independence in their inac- cessible upland retreats. On the one hand are the already described Svans, on the other their Xhevsur, Pshav, and Tush neighbours. The highest eastern valleys about Moimt Borbalo have afforded a refuge to fugitives of diverse race and speech, who, amidst these secluded upland snows and pastures, have gradually acquired, if not an indcisendent tvpe, at least a distinct phj-.siognomy. Chechenzes, Lezghians, Georgians, and, according to tradition, even Jews have entered into the comjjosition of these tribes, although the chief ethnical element is no doubt the Georgian from the south, whose presence is also shown by the prevailing Christian practices. ^Nevertheless the predominant s^Deech on the northern .slojjes is of Chechcnz origin. Mount Borbalo is no less remarkable as an ethnological than as a water parting. Eastward stretches the Tush district, watered by the two head-streams of the Koisu of Audi ; on the south the Alazan of Kakhetia, apart from a few Tu.shes, is mainlj^ occupied by Georgians ; on the soiith-west the soiu'ces of the Yora and Eastern Aragva rise in the Pshav territory ; while the Khevsm-s, or " People of the Gorges," dwell in the west and north-west, on both slopes of the central range, though it is impossible to assign definite limits to all these peoples.* They fre- quently shift their quarters, following their flocks to fresh pastures assigned to them hy custom, or acquired by the fortunes of war. The Pshavs, who reach farthest down, or about the altitude of 3,300 feet, thus abutting on the Southern Georgians, are the most civilised of these highlanders, and s^jeak a Georgian dialect. They have greatly increased in numbers since the pacification of the land has enabled them to bring their produce to the Tiflis market. The Tushes, though less nimierous and pent up in their rugged valleys everywhere enclosed by snowy moimtains, are said to be the most industrious and intelligent of all the hillmen in this part of the Caucasus. Most of the men, being obliged, like the Savoyards, to emigrate for half the year, bring back from the low- land populations larger ideas and more enterprising habits. Many have even acquired a considerable amount of instruction, besides several foreign languages. Their o^vn is an extremely rude dialect, poor in ^-owels, abounding in consonants, with no less than nine sibilants and eight gutturals, one of which combines so iuti- * Population of Upland Borbalo valleys in 1876, accordiug to Seidlitz : — Tshavs 8,150 Khcvsurs 6,000 Tushca 5,050 Total 20,100 THE KHEVSUES, PSHAVS, AND TIjSHES. 117 niately ivltli the preceding or following consonants that sjjecial signs had to be invented to represent the combined letters. The Khevsurs, com2:)letely isolated from each other during the winter h\ the main range, are still in a very rude and almost barbarous state, although in some Fig. 57. — The Kiievsub, Tlsh, and Psii.iv Lixds. Scale 1 : 850,000. EcfC "W°50 ■45°i5- r Perron Khevsurs. Txtehes. rsh.lvs. Georgians. 15 Miles. ' Chechenzes. respects one of the most remarkable people in Asia. Generally of a lighter brown complexion than the Tushes, the}- are evidently a very mixed race, varying con- siderabh' in stature, featiu-es, colour of hair and eyes, and in the shape of the cranium. Most of them have a savage a.spcct ; some are extremely thin, like 118 ASLA.TIC RUSSIA. AvaLkiiig skeletons witli miraculously animated Deatli's heads on their shoulders, and -with large hands and feet, out of all ^jroportion with the rest of the body. From the surroundings they have acquired muscles of steel, enabling them, even when heavily burdened, to scale the steejDest cliffs, and often returning across the snows and rocks from "\'la(lika\"kaz ^^•ith a hundredweight of salt on their backs. Some of the still sur\ i%mg Khevsm- and Pshav customs resemble those of many Red Indian and African wild tribes. Thus the wife is coufiued in an isolated hut, round which the husband prowls, encouraging her to support the pains of labour mth voUevs of musketry. After the deliver}' young girls steal to the place at dawn or dusk with bread, milk, cheese, and other comforts, the mother reniain- ino- for a month in her retreat, which is burnt after her departure. The father is congratulated on the birth of a son, and feasts are prepared at his expense, but of which he maj' not partake. The struggle for existence in this improductive land has introduced many practices calculated to luiiit the number of children to three ; but infanticide does not prevail as it formerly did amongst the Svans. The Khevsurs show great affection for their offspring, though forbidden by custom to caress them in public. The boys are generally named after some wild animal — Bear, Lion, AYolf, Panther, &c., emblems of their future valoui', while the girls receive such tender names as Rose, Pearl, Bright-one, Daughter of the Stm, Little Sun, Sun of mj- Heart, &c. Most of the marriages are arranged by the parents while the children are yet in " long clothes." Nevertheless a formal abduction is still practised, and after the wedding and attendant rejoicings, the young couple avoid being seen together for weeks and months. Yet divorce is frequent, and the example of the Moham- medans has even introduced polygamy in several Khevsur families. The funeral rites are not practised with the same rigour as formerly, when none were allowed to die under a roof, but compelled to close their eyes in face of sun or stars, and mingle their last breath mth the Avinds. In presence of the body the relatives at hrst feigned to rejoice, but tears and wailings soon followed, accompanied by mournful songs for the departed. The Khevsurs are verj^ proud of their Christianity, which is certainly of an original type. Their chief divinity is the God of AVar, and amongst their other gods and angels are the Mother of the Earth, the Angel of the Oak, and the Archangel of Projierty. They keep the Friday lilvc the Mohaimnedans, abstain from pork, worship the sacred trees, offer sacrifices to the genii of earth and air. They have priests whose duties are to examine the sick, sprinkle the ^-ictim's blood over the people, proclaim the future, prepare the sacred beer, and these dignitaries end by becoming possessed of all the precious stones, old medals, and chased silver vases in the country. The Khevsurs are also, perhaps, the only people in the world who still use armour, coats of mail, arm-pieces, and hebnets like those of mcdiiuval knights, and formerl}' general amongst all the Caucasian tribes. Do\\"U to the close of the last century the Chechenz Ingushes still wore the shield and coats of mail. The traveller is often startled bv the siuht of these armed KHEYSUK IN AEMOUE. THE TATAES, TALISHES, SLAYS, AND GERMANS. 119 warriors, v.]io look like lineal descendants of the Crusaders, but whom the law of vendetta alone compels to go about thus cased in iron. All who have to execute or fear an act of vengeance appear abroad with all their offensive and defensive arms, including the terrible spiked gauntlet, which has left its mark ou the features of most of the natives. TiiK Tatars, Talishes, Slavs, axb Germans. Although far less numerous than the Georgians in the Kui'a basin, the Tatars still occupy nearly aU its eastern section below Tiflis. In several districts they are grouped in compact masses of a far jjurer type than their kinsmen, the Western Osmanli. By the Byzantines and Arabs they were all confused, imder the general name of Khazars, with the peoples at that time predominating on the banks of the Don and Volga. Although presenting every variety of type from the coarsest to the noblest, thej' are in general scarcely less sjimnetrical than their Georgian neighbours, while harbouring, under a serious and solemn expression, moral qualities not found in other Caucasian races. Those who have preserved their freedom are remarkably sincere, ujDright, and liospitable, generally very industrious, and superior to their neighbour's as stock-breeders, agricidturists, gardeners, and artisans. They are often even better instructed than the Russians themselves, for most of them can read, while many write Tui-kish very correctly, and some show themselves familiar with Arabic and Persian. In some respects the Tatars are the ci\'ilising element in Caucasia, for their ■ language, the Turki of Azerbeijan, is the general mediimi of intercoui'se between the various tribes, so that all the natives are commonly comprised imder the col- lective name of Tatars. Amongst them are some representatives of the Kimians and other warlike invaders of Southern Europe, and they could not fail to have acquired a decisive influence in the coimtry, but for a certaia apathy of character which has caused them to fall into the hands of Armenian s^secidators and money-lenders. In their habits those of the Lower Km-a, Shirvau, and Baku approach nearer to the Persians than to the Tiu-ks. They seldom practise poly- gamy, and their women generally work freely with imvciled face. On the whole they are remarkabl\- tolerant, nor does the Shiah sect take advantage of its decided ascendancy to persecute either the Sunnite Mohammedans or their Christian neighboui's. In some mixed villages the maj'ors are chosen alternately fi-om the Armenians and Tatars, and even on the Persian frontier the Christians assist at the Shiah celebrations. Thus at Shusha the funeral processions in honour of Hassan and Hussein are escorted by moxmted Cossacks, and attended by military bands. Yet the fanatical actors often bewail those martyrs of the Prophet's family by self-inflicted tortm'es of a most atrocious description, slashing their heads with knives until the}' are bathed in gore, burying wooden pegs in their skull, attaching iron clasps to the cheek bones and nostrils, confining the shoulders between two sharp swords which pierce the skin at every step, or loading the arms, breast, and loins with chains and amulets fastened bv means of iron hooks 120 ASIATIC KUSSIA. siuik into the flcisli. The luiliappy victims often fall from exhaustion or loss of hlood, while the der\'ishes and joriests continue to excite the populace with songs, prayers, and shouts. In certain eastern districts dwell the Tats, also zealous Shiah sectaries, descend- ants of the former Persian rulers of the covmtry, and whose name is synom-mous i^-ith that of Tajik, current throughout Tiu'kestau. They are found in compact groups about Baku, and as far north as Kuba. Most of the Lenkoran district, on the Persian frontier, is also occujiied by an Iranian people known as Talishes, who have long dwelt in a semi-barbarous state in the secluded region between the highlands and the swamps of the Lower Kura. Their language is not a Persian dialect, but an independent parallel development, showing a certain affinity to the Afghan. Next to the Georgians and the Tatars, these Tats and Talish Iranians occupy the widest ethnical area in Caucasia, although outnumbered bj' the Arme- nians, who are grouped in the towns, and especially in Tiflis. Besides all these races there are a few [Mongol tribes in the Ijower Kura basin, survivors of the old invaders, who live more or less intermingled with the Tatars along the left bank of the Alazan between Signakh and Zakatali. The hillj- district overlooking Tiflis on the west is occupied by some Osses, and even Greeks, invited hither to replace the Tatars in 1829. Lastly, the settled population of Eastern Transcaucasia is com- pleted by several Russian and German colonists, some banished, others voluntary emigrants to this region. The Eus-sian nonconformists, compelled in 1838 and subsequent years to settle in Transcaucasia, are mostly Molokane.s — that is, " Feeders on Milk " — or Dukho- bortzi — that is, " Wrestlers in Spirit " — from Taurida. Thanks to their co-operative habits, both are far more prosj)erous than their Tatar or Georgian neighbours, though in many respects inferior to other Slav colonists. The Germans who, like the Russian dissidents, have also settled near Tiflis and Yelizavetpol, live entirely aloof from the surroimding populations, and by their agricidtural skill have con- verted into gardens the lauds conceded to them when they migrated in 1817 from Wiirtemberg. These Suabian colonists seem, in the coiu-se of two generations, to have become remarkably modified imder the influence of the physical siu-roundings. Although they have contracted no alliances with their Georgian, Armenian, or Tatar neighbours, they no longer resemble their kinsmen in the fatherland, most of them being now distiuguished by dark haii", black eyes, oval and regvdar featui-es, graceful and lithe figui'es. Topography. The highest to-svn in the Kura basin is Ardahan, a stronghold situated in a fertile cirque at the southern foot of the bluff surmounted by the fortress of Ramazan. By its captui-e in 1877 the Russians became masters of the more important passes leading towards the Chorukh and Araxis valleys. But eastwards Ardahan still remains unconnected by easy routes ■with the rest of Transcaucasia, the volcanic region here traversed by the Kura ojjjiosing great obstacles to trade. TOPOGEAPHY. 121 One of tlic river gorges below Ardahau encloses the celebrated convent of ^"ardzia, or Yardzish — that is, " Castle of Eoses " — cntirelj' excavated in the soft tufa, which is here regnlarly stratified with laj^ers of black scoria. The undcrgroimd town contains innumerable cells disposed in stories, and connected by galleries edging the preci- Y>icc 200 feet above the Kura. The larger spaces form either chapels, where are still to be seen the remains of frescoes, or the so-called summer and winter palaces of Queen Tamara. East of these defiles stands the important fortress of Akdlkahihi, on an exposed but fertile plateau 5,630 feet above sea-level. Akiska, or Akhaltzik — that is, " New Fig-. 58. — The Sukam Pass and Mesk Mountains. Soaltj 1 : 210,000. Kt^r^ 4S« 5,' .^-'- 45" 25 Sour'am C Perron 3 Miles. Fort " — which was the old Turkish town of Ak-hissar, or " White Fort," is also an imiDortunt military town, commanding several of the frontier routes, and in peaceful times the centre of a considerable trade, since the emigration of the Turks chiefly occupied by Armenians, with about a thousand Jews. The old mosque of its citadel, now a church, is one of the finest monimients in Caucasia. The district abounds in hot springs, amongst which those of Aspiuza below Yardzia, and Abbas- Tmuan to the north-west, attract numerous bathers to one of the most mnbrageous and romantic valleys in this region. Descending from Akhaltzik towards Tiflis by the banks of the Kura, we reach the magnificent gorge, whose entrance is guarded by the pleasant watering-place of Horjoiii, 2,665 feet above sea-level. 122 ASIATIC RUSSIA. This is the sxunnier resort of the wealthy ehisses from Tiflis, anrl the ruined build- ings intersjoersed amongst the modern palaces and villas show that it was a lai-gc centre of popidatiou even before the sixteenth century. Here the air is pure and fresh, water flows in abundance, and every eminence is clothed with forests in which the ibex and wild goat are still hunted. Siirnji), thouo-h small in size, is a busv town, well known to travellers as a resting-place on the route and railway between Poti and Tiflis. It is commanded by a .strong castle, which, according to the legend, the o'\\'ner endeavoured to render impregnable by laying the foundation stone on the only son of a widow. Suram stands at the western extremity of the Karthalian plain, a dried-up lake whose bed is now extremely fertile. The temporary railway at iircsent crossing the Suram Fig. .59. — The KruA Vailey hetween Gori and ItiZKHET. From llie Map of the Eussi.in Staff. Scale 1 : oOO.COO. EoPG -4-4 10 44 40 C Pe . B Miles. Hills will probably be ultimately rejilaced by another running farther south, and piercing the Mesk I'ange by a tunnel in the A-icinity of Borjom. Goi-i, capital of the district, and ethnological centre of Georgia, stands as nearly as jjossible in the middle of the old lacustrine basin, not far from the junction of the Kura, Lakhva, and Mejuda, of which the two latter streams descend from the coimtry of the Osses. Gori is happily situated in a fertile and well- watered district at the foot of a bluff crowned by an old citadel. The wheat of this district is the best in Transcaucasia, and its wines are used in Tiflis for temjjering the more fiery vintages of Kakhetia. C)n a tertiary rock of molasse formation, 5 miles east of Gori, lies the troglodytic town of Uflis-tzikhe, no less remarkable than the convent of Vardzia, and much more accessible to -sisitors by the railway from Tiflis. The rock, .some 6G0 feet high, consists of sti'ata of varying hardness, carved, scidptured, and excavated from base to smnmit, so as to present the appearance of a pyramidal group of buildings. These Uflis grottoes were probably at first inhabited by TOPOGRAPHY. 123 barbarous Iroglodytcs ; but their successors were acquainted Avith the arts and comforts of life, and in these iiudergroimd chambers are found the remains of Greek, Roman, Arab, and Byzantine architecture. Mfzk/ief, standing at the outlet of the old Lake of Karthalia, though now an insignificant \-illage, was the residence of the Georgian kings in the fourth and fifth centuries. It occupies a ^ital position at the junction of the main routes from the Darial defile through the Aragva valley, and from the Caspian and Euxine through the Kura and Eion basins. Hence after its destruction the new capital of Georgia and of all Caucasia was foimded in the same neighbourhood, but removed, about a thousand years ago, some 13 miles farther south, to avoid the dangero\is proxi- mity of the Osses. The jjiles of a bridge thro\^Ti across the Kura in 1841 arc said to rest on Roman foimdations dating from the time of Pompey. But more interesting are the ruins of the cathedral founded by King Mirian in 328, and since then f requentlj' restored. Tijlis, capital of Caucasia and the largest city in Asiatic Russia, was a mere hamlet on the banks of the Kura till the fifth centurj', when the seat of Govern- ment was transferred hither from Mtzkhet. The Georgian term Tiflis, Tphilis, or Tphilis-Kalaki, means " Hot Toaati," doubtless in reference to the sidphm- spring rising near the Kura, amidst the porphyries and schists of the Tsavkissi fissure. Yet the name might be equally well applied to it from the sultry summer heat reflected by the bare rocks of the sui'roimding heights on the basin enclosing the city at an elevation of 1,220 feet above the sea. Nothing is visible in every direc- tion except the slopes of hills or yellow and grey schistous mountains stripped of the forests formerly covering them, and even of the vegetable himius carried away by the winds and rains. The Russians have recently endeavoured to restore these forests, but they have succeeded only in the ravines, on the flats and islands watered by the Kura. Above the quarter where stood the old to^ni, the mono- tonous TUiiformity of the rocky landscape is broken by ramparts, bastions, and crmnbling towers, while the banks of the Kura present a picturesque view with their three bridges, hanging galleries, low many-colonred housetops, and chm'ches flanlvcd by belfries terminating with octagonal pyramids. Nevertheless the general aspect of the place is not cheerful, the grey tones of the brick and wood work con- tributing to produce a depi-essing effect on the traveller. In 1874 nearly half of the houses were still roofed with earth, giving them the appearance of huts, and forming a strange contrast with the grand edifices in their midst. North-west of the old town stretch the regidar streets of the new quarter, flanked by heavy buildings, churches, barracks, palaces, in the ultra-Caucasian Russian stj'le. A broad boulevard, much frequented after sunset, ^-ies in the splendour of its ware- houses with those of the great European capitals. The town is also constantly spreading northwards, especially roimd about the Poti railway tenninus, along the left bank of the Kura, and in the direction of Mtzldiet. In its motley population Tiflis is the worthy capital of the Caucasian regions. Although lying within the ethnological limits of Georgia, it is not in a special sense a Georgian city, and even in 1803 of 2,700 houses four only belonged to families 12-i ASIATIC RUSSIA. of that nation. The Armenians, constituting one-third of the inhabitants, are the most numerous element, vrhile neither Prussians nor Georgians amount to one-fifth, and even amongst the latter must be included the Imerian and !MingreHan " hewers of wood and di-awers of water." * A large uimiber of the peoijle are unmarried immigrants, temporary residents raising the male pojDulation to about two-thirds of the whole, and parth' accounting for the prevailing depravity noticed by all travellers. The bazaars are largely frequented and well stocked ■n-ith arms, carpets, silks, English or Russian cottons, Paris fancy goods, and other wares. The skilful Armenian jewellers produce various articles of an original type. The baths fonn another centre of social activity, especially for the Russian, Armenian, and Georgian ladies, who here occupy themselves with the pleasures of the toilet. The city has no rcmai-kable momuuents, but possesses a rich uatm-al-hlstory collection, and in the governor's jDalace may be seen a fine plan in relief of the Caucasus range. Amongst the numerous learned associations noteworthy is the Geographical Society, which is attached to that of St. Petersbm-g, and has pixb- lished valuable documents on Caucasian geography and ethnograjDhy. Another institution has been formed to collect the old manuscripts of the Transcaucasian languages. During the oppressive summer heats the parks, pleasure grounds, and botanic gardens in the neighbourhood are frequented by thousands, glad to escape from the close and foul air of the narrow streets. The officials and wealthy traders now also flock to the villas aud hostelries of the surrounding uplands. The chief " Sani- toriimi " is Kojor, whose houses are scattered at an elevation of from 4,400 to 5,000 feet along the slopes of a mountain conunaudiug the Tiflis basiu, and where the Georgian kiugs had also their summer residence. Here are the remains of some ancient forests, and Manglis, Beliy-Kliich, aud other more remote retreats in the heart of the hills are still sm-roimded by extensive woodlands. The nimierous alabaster quarries of this district siq^ply the g_\iisum required by the Tiflis builders. Farther south volcanoes pierced by craters aud fiu-rowcd \)\ crevasses have accu- mulated vast terraces of la\a above the fertile Somkhet district, which is watered by au affluent of the Kura. This country \\as long the domain of the Orbeliani, a princely family of Chinese origin, who some twenty-three ccntm-ies ago settled here as conquerors, followed by Eastern retainers of all races. Various ruins stiU testify to the former power of the Orbeliani in this region. On one of the numerous streams to the south-west of Tiflis stands the famous Shamkhor column, already mentioned by Abidfeda in the thirteenth century. This finel}- proportioned minaret, with its pedestal, frieze, capital, and terminal piece, is 180 feet high ; but it is in a very bad state of repair, already inclining from the * Population of Tiflis in 1S76 according to nationalities :- Armenians .... Georgians of iill branches Russians . . . . , Germans ..... Tatars and Turks .... Persians ..... 37,308 Poles . 21,623 Jews 19,.574 Greeks . 2,005 Osses 2,310 French . 1,692 Sundries 1,592 1,145 383 293 267 1,354 In boarding-liouses, barracks, hospitals, and prisons, 14,473. Of these 66,147 are males, 37,877 females. TOPOGRAPHY. 12.j p3rpenclicular, auti tlie Kiiiic inscription on tlic frieze is no longer legible. It dates probably from the ninth century. The ba^in o; the Shamkhor, which flow.s by the ^■illag■c of like name, is the most important in Caucasia for its mineral wealth. In a cirque in these porphyry mountains, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, are situated the Kcdabek works for reduciug the copper ores extracted from the neighbouring mines. This establishment, purchased in 18G3 by some German engineer.?, gives Fig. GO.— TiFLis. Scale 1 : 36,000. l.OSO Yards. constant emploj-meut to 1,000 Persian, Ai'menian, Tatar, and Greek workmen, and works up, on an average, from 8,000 to 10,000 tons of ore with about 6 per cent, of metal, partly purchased by the Government for the artillery service. It has developed quite a network of railways, and disposes of about 35,000 acres of forests and pastures, and one of the shafts has already been sunlc to a depth of nearly 2,000 feet. Kear Soglik, in the same basin, are some alimi deposits, as rich as those VOL. VI. K 12G ASIATIC EUSSIA. of Tolfa, near Civita Yeccliia, and covering an area of over 12 square miles. These mines have been worked since the time of the Romaas, as shown by niuuerous remains found on the sjjot. Iron and cobalt are also worked in this part of the Yelizavetpol district. Some 1"20 miles south-east of Tiflis lies the old city of Ganja, formerly capital of a khanate of like name, and now renamed Yelizavetpol, as capital of the Russian jiroviace of Yelizavetjwl. It existed in the eleventh centui-y, but some miles fi'om its present site, where are still to be seen the ruins of the old place, popxdarly attributed to Alexander the Great, who never visited the Kiira basin. A little farther south-cast stood Partav, the old cajjital of the kingdom of Agvania, or Tig. 61. — Yeliza\etpol and ViCtXITY. From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 600,000. C.ofG. 46M0' C. Perrcn 12 JIUes. xVlbania, in the district watered by the Terter above its junction with the Kura. Partav was destroyed in the tenth ccntmy, according to the Ai'ab historians, by " Russi " adventurers from beyond the Caucasus, and its site is now iudicated by the village of Barda, or Berdaya. This region was certainly far more denselj'- peopled formerly than at i)resent, and Yelizavetpol itself, rebuilt in the sixteenth century on its present site, was evidently a considerable place, as sho-vvn by its extensive ruins and the fine Persian mosque erected here by Shah Abbas. Most of its windowless houses arc built of a hardened clay, which is very dm-able in this dry climate, but which, with the ruins, contributes to give the place an appearance of great age. "With its fine plantations it covers a large area, some 12 irdles in circumference ; yet it is so unhealthy that the officials are all obliged to remove in TOPOGEAPHY. 327 suimiier to the banks of the roniautic " Blue Lake " (Gok-gol), to Helonendorf, and Haji-Kend, near the wooded hills of the south. Yelizavetpol is even noted for a local endemic, the so-called godocik, or " j-early leprosy," so named because it lasts about one year in defiance of all remedies. This loathsome disease is probably due Fig. 62.— The Telav Basin. Fi-om the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 400,000. 45°5 EoFb ~15 35 C .Perron a MUes. to the twenty-two cemeteries close to the town, mingling their contents with the numerous irrigating rills from the river Ganja, whose waters are often absorbed in this way before reaching the Kiu-a. The skilfid horticulture of its Tatar, Suabiau, iind Slav inhabitants has brought the fruits of this district to great perfection, and its cherries especially are the finest in Caucasia. They also occupy themselves ^^ith K 2 128 ASIATIC BUSSIA. the cultivation of tobacco, cotton, sericulture, sijiuuiug, uud weuviug, while the tiade of Yelizavetpol is chiefly in the hands of the Armenians. S/ni'^/ia, the largest town in this government, is also 2ieo2:)led hy Armenians and Tatars. Standing 8,000 feet above the sea on an augite i^orphyrj- terrace enclosed bj' an amphitheatre of hills, its climate is one of the severest in Caucasia, M'hile its flag-paved streets, stone houses, fortified buildings, towers, and posterns give it the Fig. 63. — Baku and Cape Bail-Bi'kxi. asjjcct of a mediaeval European town. Its Armenian traders, who deal chiefly in silk, have extensive relations with Tiflis, Moscow, and Marseilles. Telar, capital of Kakhctia, and in the ele^•enth century the residence of a " King of Kings," is now merely a picturesque village, standing with its ruined forts on the summit of a bluff overlooking the Alazau valley. Yet it has a considerable wino trade, and but foi' its inconvenient situation might possibly recover some of its former importance. 8i(jita];h, also coiimiandiug the iVlazan valley from an eminence TOrOGEAPHY. 129 Fig. 6-1. — Lenkoran. Fi-om the Map of the Eussian Staff. Scale 1 : 600,000. 2,G00 feet high, was origiually a fortres-s and " phico of refuge," as iiulioated by its Tatar name, but has gradually become a thriving conmiercial to^vn, with a prepori' derating Armenian population. Niikha, at the foot of the Great Caucasus, is peopled chiefl}' by Tatars engaged mostly in sericulture and silk-weaving, Hero the Khan Hussein built a strong fortress in 1765, which encloses an extreraelj' handsome palace in Persian style. It does a large export trade in raw siHv, and since the ravages of the silk disease in the European nurseries it is yearly visited by hundreds of French and Italian buyers. Shamallii, the Shemakha of the Russians, capital of the old pro^•ince of Shirvan, and formorl}' the largest city in Transcaucasia, was said to have had a poj)ulatiou of 100,000 in the seventeenth century. But it has suffered much from earthquakes, and still more from the hand of man, having been wasted first by Peter the Great, and then by Xadir Shah. Yet ever since the removal of the seat of Government to Baku it has remained the most populous place in the province. It is chiefly engaged in wool- spinning, dyeing, and weaving carpets in the Persian style, said to be the best and most durable in all Asia, and surpassing even those of the French looms in beauty of design, rich- ness of colour, and cheapness. Its seedless pomegranates are also famous throughout the East. Bal;i(, the present capital of the eastern province of Transcaucasia, exhibits quite an Asiatic appearance, with its low flat-roofed houses, tall minarets and palace of its former khans. Close to the blue waters of its bay stands the so-called "Maiden's Tower," a truncated cone, originally, doubtless, a watch- tower, but now used as a lighthouse. But being- otherwise destitute of monuments, the dirty, irrcgvdar, and dust}' town of Baku, and centre of the naphtha trade, possesses no imjjortance except as the Caspian seaport of all Transcaucasia. In its deej) and sheltered roadstead at least fifty vessels are always anchored, some in 20 feet of water within a few yards of the shore, and although still unconnected by rail either with Stavropol or Tiflis, it has the largest trade of any Caspian port except Astrakhan. But it has scarcely any industries, and even all the naphtha and 130 ASIATIC RTTSSTA. petroleum refining \voiks are carried on at Balakhani and Mashtagi, in the neighbourhood of the " fire springs." Sdli/roii, or 8alyan, the chief \o\n\ of the Ivura delta, and standing near its apex, derives considerable importance from its productive fisheries and horticulture. Lcii/ioran, or Lenkorud, a maritime town near the Persian frontier, lacks the natural advantages of Baku; for although its Tatar name means " roadstead," it is o-reatly exposed to the winds and surf, and its shipping is obliged to cast anchor about 2 miles from the coast. The Mard-ab, or " Dead Waters," of the surround- ing district also render its climate .very unhealthj'. In these swampy grounds multitudes of ducks and other aquatic birds are taken by the net, and the cultiva- tion of rice, together with a rich Indian flora, has been introduced by the Hindu traders. South of Lenkoran stands the equally inconvenient and insalubrious little port of Astara, at the mouth of a river of like name, which here marks the frontier of the Russian and Persian Empires. From Persia, Astara imports dried fruits, gall nuts, and raw cotton, in exchange for cotton stviffs, iron and copper ware, and samovars. It has a yearly trade of nearly 1,000,000 roubles. YII.— RUSSIAN ARMENIA. ARARAT, ALAGOZ, PLATEAU OF LAKE GOK-CHAI, AND AEAXIS BASIN. The Araxis basin presents on the whole a marked geographical imitj-, forming, north of the Iranian tableland, a broad semicircidar zone, with its convex side facing southwards, and everywhere enclosed bj' lofty moiuitaius, excej^t near the Caspian, where the hills fall towards the alluvial plains of the Kura and Araxis. Neither of these rivers forms a uniform ethnological domain, for Armenians, Georgians, and Tatars dwell on the banks of the former, while the Araxis valley is occupied by Armenians, Km'ds, and other Tatar peoi^les. Still the Armenians everjTvhere preponderate not only in cidture and influence, but also in numbers. Politically also the Araxis basin is divided between the three converging states, the region of all the head-streams belonging to Tui'key, and most of the right bank of the main stream to Persia, while more than half of the whole basin, including the best strategical points for a descent on the Euphrates valley, are now Russian territory. Russia is thus mistress of the famous Mount Ararat, and of the con- vent of Echmiadzin, the religious capital of the Armenians, and centre of their nationality. Orography — Ararat — Ai.a-goz. North of the sources of the Araxis the mountains sloj^ing- northwards towards the Euxine are cut up by ravines and glens into irregular chains and sj)urs, such as the Kirechli, Soghanli, and Childir-dagh, which, north of the Kars basin, merge in the lacustrine plateau bordered eastwards by the Abul and Samsar volcanoes. Although presenting serious obstacles to intercommunication, none of these ranges OEOGEAPHY— AEAEAT— ALA-G()Z. 131 attain the altitude of the Caucasus and Anti-Caucasus, the highest summit being the Kizil-dagh, or " Red 3Iountain," l)ct^vcen the Kars basin and Lake Childir, which is only 10,460 feet, and consequently below the noi-mal snow-line. South of the region of the Araxis head-streams the highlands become narrower, but more elevated, here forming a single parting range running east and west between the Araxis and Eujihrates or Murad valleys, with several extinct craters over 10,000 feet high, and culminating with the Pcrli-dagh in the centre, and the Chingil, Fig. 65. — Recent RrssiAN Con-quests. Scale 1 : 3,500,000. .,.!/' Bo r^jom ' ' ' \ i J>--' ' TifiisSi AA.' EoFG. C Per-ro- Ceded by the treaty of St. Stefeno. Annexed in ]S7S. Transcanca.=!ia before the War. , CO Mfles. near the eastern pass leading fi-om Erivan to Bayazid, both about 10,830 feet above the sea. Several streamlets flowing to the Araxis indicate, by their name of Tuzla-su, the nature of their waters, which spring from extensive salt beds. North of the Perli-dagh stands Mount Kulpi, one of the largest masses of rock-.salt in the world, rising on a tertiary plain near the point where the Araxis passes through a narrow basalt gorge above its junction with the Arpa-chai. The surrounding hills, destitute of vegetation, and composed of red, blue, green, or grey marls, impart to 132 ASIATIC EUSSIA. the landscape a most motley appoarance. Tlio Kulpi salt mines, wliicli are confined to a central layer from 100 to 210 feet thick, have probably been longer worked than any other out of China. The Armenians tell us ho^v Noah drew his supplies from this source, and even show the very spot where he began his mining operations. In the abandoned parts of the works hammers and other implements are frcqiicntlj' picked wp, dating from the stone age. These objects are all made of diorite, a rock found nowhere in the district, and which must have been procured from distant countries. The mining operations are still carried on in a rude manner, and owing to the absence of roads, the produce is limited to the Tiflis and Fig. 6G. — Aeahat. From the Map of tbe Eiissian Staff. Scale 1 : 320,000.' I f|'^ '% ' flfTf^^ •7 * A .r - r/ •^ ... >,<-^v'^- •'"'..«»;. V hB-' t t \ < f '0 ti Ojel al , .3 .-A.>MS £i)I.v ^^ ,K ^ E oFG. , G Miles. Erivan markets. Between 1836 and 1876 the average yield has risen from 4,000 to 16,300 tons. Ararat, "historical centre of the Armenian plateau," and central point of the line of tablelands stretching across the eastern hemisphere from the Cape of Good Hope to Bering Strait, rises above the eastern continuation of the volcanic chain rimning between the Araxis and the Euphrates. But its snowy crest towers to such a height above the surrounding moimtaius that they become dwarfed to mere hills, while the hilly plateaux seem to stretch like plains at its base. Its very name of Ararat, probably of Aramaean origin, is synonpnous with supereminence, while its Armenian designation, Masis, is also said to mean " grand," or " sublime." OEOGEAPHT— AEAEAT— ALA-GOZ. 133 The Turks cull it Agri-dagh, or "Steep Moimtain," and the Persians Koh-i-Nuh, or "Xoah's Moimt." This superb mass, grander than the Hellenic Ohinpuses, naturally became a sacred object to the peoples of the plains, the mysterious smnmit whence men and animals descended to people the world. The Armenians show the yery spot where Noah's ark grounded, and where it is still guarded by genii armed with flaming swords.* Viewed from Xakhicheyan, Ararat looks like a compact conic mass rising on the north-west horizon ; but from Bayazid on the south, and Eriyau on the north, it is seen to consist of two distinct momitains disposed in the direction of the Caucasus — Great Ararat, with a double peak in the north-west ; Little Ararat, with a roimded crest in the south-east, and with a deep interyening depression. Both Ficr. 67. — Mount Akabat. masses, with their counterforts, occupy an area of about 380 square miles between the plaius of Bayazid and Eriyan. Like those of Etna, their slopes are almost eyerj-where gently inclined, although the ascent is rendered yery difScidt lower down by occasional laya streams, and higher up by the snows, nearly always softened imder the solar rays in smnmer. The Armenians speak of the prodigies by which too daring shepherds haye eyer been i)reyented from scaling the " ilother of the AVorld," and the failures of Tournefort and Morier lent a colour to their statements. When Parrot at last scaled the highest crest in 1829, they imani- * Elevations of the Araxis and neighljoui-ing plains : — Feet. Great Ararat Little Ararat Intermediate Col 16,760 11,680 8,785 Bayazid (citadel) Echmiadzin . Erivan . Feet. 6,634 2,810 3,200 184 ASIATIC RUSSIA. mously denied the tnitli of his account, and for a long time succeeded in casting a doubt on his veracity, until the exploit ^yas repeated by other adventurers. In 1850 Kliodzko passed five whole days on the summit in order to prosecute his work of triangulation in Caucasia. Tie jDassed thence south-cast to Moimt Salivau, 204 miles off, and north-west to Jlount Elbruz, distant 264 miles, corresponding by means of heliotropic signals with the astronomers stationed on Mount Akh-dagh, in the centre of the Gok-chai plateau. At an elevation of 11,600 feet, Ararat is still everywhere clothed with vegeta- tion ; but herbage ceases at 12,500 feet, while nothing occurs except an Aljjine flora between 13,200 and 14,300, which marks the line of perpetual snow. The sjiecics of the Upper Ararat are all either identical with, or allied to, those of the Alps, but they are much less nimierous, a fact doubtless due to the greater dr3^less of the atmosjjhere on the Armenian mountain. Its faiuia also is comparatively ver}^ poor. The wolf, hyena, and perhaps the panther, haunt the thickets at its base about the Araxis ; but higher up nothing is met except an ibex, a polecat, and a species of hare. Although onlj^ 8° of latitude farther south than the Pyrenees, the lower slopes are free of snow much earlier, and the snow-line itself is about a mile lower do^ra than on the Iberian range. Still the snow reaches much further down in the ravines of erosion b}' which its flanks are furrowed. In several gorges these snows become true glaciers, of which the chief is that of St. James, whose cirque has imdoubtedly been formed by a former eru2:)tion analogous to that of the Val del Bove on Mongibello. In more remote times the glaciers reached much lower, as shown bj' the scored and jjolished surface of the trachite rocks. Notwithstanding the vast quantity of snow lying on its slopes, Ararat is almost entirely destitute of water. "Wagner failed to discover anAiihing bej'ond two springs at its base, from which mere rills trickle away amongst the stones. Hence its sides remain arid and jiarched, while the neighbouring moimtains, also of volcanic origin, discharge torrents numerous enough to form vast and deejD lakes at their feet. During drj- seasons Ararat becomes altogether uninhabitable, the want of shade and moisture driving away the flocks, and even the birds of the air. It is therefore probable that the water from the melting snows disappears in crevasses, or beneath the ashes and lavas, either collecting in imderground lakes, or forming a network of hidden streams. These waters, transformed to steam by the subterraneous fires, may perhaps explain the terrible eruption of 1840, when an old crater above the convent of St. James suddenly reopened, ejecting a dense vajjour far above the smnmit of Ararat, and diffusing sulphurous exhalations roimd about. The mountain groaned threateningly, casting up from the fissure vast quantities of stones and rocks, some weighing as much as 5 tons. Jets of steam escaped through nmnerous crevasses, and sjirings of hot water biibbled up from the bed of the Araxis. The convent itself disappeared beneath the debris, together with the rich and populous village of Arguri, supposed by the Armenians to be the oldest in the world, and to mark the spot where Noah planted the vine on leaving the ark. There perished on this occasion, besides the 2,000 inhabitants OEOGEAPHT— ARARAT— ALA-GOZ. 133 of Arguri, several thousands at Erivan, Nakhichevan, and Bayazld, victims of the earthquake felt at those places. Four days afterwards a fresh disaster destroyed nearly all the land imder cidtivation about Arguri. The water and .slush, collected in the crater partly from the melting snows, burst their barriers, overflowing in long streams of mud down the slopes, and converting the plain into a vast morass. The Arguri eruption is the onlv one mentioned in historic times, though Ararat Fig. 68.— Ala-guz. Fiom the Hap of the Russian Staff.; Scale 1 : 300,000. ■^^ - jN E« CPerron , 6 Miles. has been the scene of frequent and violent earthquakes. The statement of Eeineggs that he saw flames and smoke emitted from the summit in 1785 is more than doubtful, for the phenomenon was witnessed by none of the natives. The Allah- ghoz, or rather Ala-goz ("Motley Mountain"), faces Ararat from the opposite side of the Erivan plain. It is a volcanic mass, with a truncated cone 13,900 feet high, but with its counterforts occupying a wider area than its 136 ASIATIC RUSSIA. haughty rival. Its lava streams descend south and east towards the Araxis valley — west and north towards ^Vlcxandrapol, in the Arpa-chai basin. It takes its name from the di-^-erse eolours of its scoriae, pumice, and obsidians, varied here and there with herbage and bright flowers. Three of the old craters now form as many small lakes, although but few streams reach the plains, the running waters gene- Fig. 69. — Lake Gok-ciiai.' From (he Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. 44° 50 45°50 C qCG C Perron 18 Miles. rally disappearing beneath the scorioo, and feeding the Aiger-gol, a lake lying south of the mountain, and cbaining through the Kara-su to the Araxis. Lake Gok-ch.\i — The Kakakagh — Flora and Fauna. Isolated like Ararat, the Ala-goz is connected only by low ridges with the northern highlands. These rim parallel with the Caucasus, and connect the volcanic chain of the Akhalkalaki plateau ■^-ith the mountains overlooking Lake LAKE GOK-CHAI— THE KAEABAGH— FLOEA AND FAUNA. 187 Clok-chai, east of Erivau. These mountains — Somkhet, Pambak, and otlicrs from 8,000 to 10,000 feet higli — stand on sucli an elevated plateau tliat the ridge is easily surmounted by passes ajjproachcd by long and gently sloping inclines. The Eshck-Maidau Pass, on the trade route between Tiflis and Erivan, stands at an altitude of 7,230 feet at the north-west angle of a hilly plateau, where the iutersectiou of the various axes of the Caucasus fonns a labyrinth of chains radi- ating in all directions, although niaiuly running north-west and south-east, parallel with the Great Caucasus. Fig-. 70. — The Alapolakim Lava St.;eams. From Dubois ilc Monlpcre ix. Scale 1 : .303,000. I- 1% The ridges maintain a mean uniform elevation, rising everywhere about 3,300 feet above the plateau forming their common base, although a few extinct cones attain a relative height of .3,000 feet, or about 13,330 above sea-level. This inter- section of ridges of uniform elevation cxplaius the forma- tion of a vast lake fiUini)- a cavity iu the plateau 6,440 feet abo\'c the Euxiue, and in summer only discharging its waters through Zauga, south-west towards the xVraxis. This is the Gok- chai, or "Blue "Water," of the Tatars, and the Sevanga of the Armenians. Although 550 square miles in extent, or two and a half times larger than Lake Geneva, Chardiu is the first European traveller who nientions it. The mean depth varies from 150 to 250 feet, but its waters, fresh in the northern section, slightly brackish in the south, harbour five species onlj' of fish, including the trout and salmon, although these are so nmucrous that from 2,000 to 3,000 trout ha\-e been taken at one haul. The lake forms an irregular triaugle, contracted towards the centre by two advancing headlands, and as it is everywhere encircled by grey and snowj- moun- tains, the landscape presents on the whole a grand and solemn, though somewhat sombre aspect. The lava and porphyry slopes are perfectly bare down to the Uc &«is C.of G 45°50' CPp — G Miles. 138 ASL^TIC EUSSIA. Avater's edge, while of the old cities nothing now sui'vives except crumbling masses, beneath which numerous coins have been found dating from the time of the Sassanides. The villages also lie hidden away in sheltered nooks, so that little is visible beyond a few hamlets half buried in the groimd, and the so-called "Tombs of tlie Giants," nmucrous tumidi scattered over the plateau, which is under snow eight months in the year. Nearly all the cultivable land has long remained fallow, so that the country has again become a desert. Till recently no craft navigated the lake, wliich, notwithstanding the fierce storms sweeping down from the hills, is often ice-boimd in winter. On a volcanic islet in the north-west corner stands the convent of Sevan, noted throughout Annenia since the ninth century. It would be hard to conceive a more forlorn place of exile than this bleak island of black rocks, whose inhabitants are condenmed to silence except fur four days in the year. But the villages of the neighbouring plateau have become convalescent retreats for the people of the imhealthy town of Erivan, where dangerous fevers are endemic. East of the Gok-chai and its eucii'cling volcanoes, conspicuous amongst which is the Alapolariin, the labyrinth of intersecting ranges is continued south-east- wards, imder the collective name of Karabagh, the Eani of the Georgians. Although the rapines preserve their snows throughout the year, not more than three or four of the crests in this region rise above the snow-line. Such are the Giimish (^12,460 feet), soiu'ce of the Terter, the Kazangol-dagh, and its southern neighbour, the Kapujish (12,380 feet), continued southwards towards the town of Ordubat by steep rugged hiUs crowned with peaks. South of these cubuinatiag points of Eastern Armenia, and beyond the gorge of the Araxis, rise other moim- tains of equal height, and sunilarlj' furrowed with snowy raA-ines. Between the chain conuuanded by Moimt Kapudish and the Shusha Momitaius' lies the Zaugezur basin, at a mean elevation of 4,000 feet, apparently an old lacustrine depression, like the Gok-chai, whose waters have been di-awn off by the Bergushet and Akera Rivers, which unite before reaching the Araxis valley. In the centre of this basin the conic Ishilvli, or Kachal-dagh, rises to a height of over 10,000 feet, and the scoria; and ashes ejected by the siuTOunding volcanoes have been accumu- lated on the bed of the old lake to a thickness of several hundred yards, since deeply furrowed by torrents. The flora of these highlands bears a remarkable rcfcmblancc to that of the European Alpine regions. Here are the same beeches, oaks, aspens, imdergrowth, and flowering plants. The upland valleys, covered with a thick layer of black loam, are very fertile, whence probably the name of Karabagh, or " Black Garden," by which this country is known. But on the arid slopes, with the thermometer at 104° Fahr. during the simamer months, little grows beyond the wild sage and other aronuitic plants, while the faima is chiefly represented by reptiles, scorpions, and formidable tarantolos (^PhalaiKjiuin araneoides). The Karabagh horses, howcA-er, which climb the cliffs like goats, are said to be the finest in Transcaucasia. THE AEAXIS BASIN. 139 The Araxis Basix. The Aruxis, or Aras, pre-eminently the Armenian river, rises bej'ond Russian territory to the south of Erzerum, and receives its first tributaries from the Bingol- dagh volcano, the " Moimtain of the Thousand Streams," some of which flow south- wards to the Euphrates. After entering Russian Transcaucasia its still feeble volume is doubled bj' the jumctiou of the Arpa-chai, or Akhurean, descending from the volcanic plateaux of Alexandrapol and the Ala-goz. Thanks to this supply, it is enabled to contribute largely to the irrigation of the Erivan basin, which woidd else become a desert waste. Diverted southwards bj- the Gok-chai and Karabagh highlands, it escapes from the old lacustrine bed thi'ough a narrow rocky gorge with falls from 200 to 270 feet broad, where its seething waters descend between steep rugged cliffs at an average rate of 15 feet in 1,000 yards, falling at one point as much as 45 feet in the same distance. Ordubat, above the Arasbar gorge, is still 3,090 feet above the Caspian, yet within 60 miles of this place the river has already reached the lowlands. After receiving the Bergushet it sweeps roimd the southern base of the Diri-dagh, bej^ond which it is joined by several torrents from the Persian highlands, idtimately joining the Kui-a after a course of about 470 miles. At the Diri-dagh it is crossed by the Khudaferiu Bridge, attributed traditionally to Pompej', but which is certaiul}^ of more recent date. Higher up are the ruins of another bridge, referred by the natives to Alexander the Great, but which may well be a Roman structure. Below that of Khudafcrin there are no other bridges, and here the former hydraulic works and irrigation canals have been mostly abandoned, so that instead of promoting the fertility of the steppe, they combine with the swamps of the Kiu-a to render this tract of the Caspian seaboard all but uninhabitable. The Araxis is said to be showing a tendency to trend more to the right, and again separate itself from the Kura, and flow independentlj^ to the sea, as in the time of Strabo. The Araxis basin is exposed to greater extremes of temperature than most regions in Western Asia. The climate of Erivan is even more severe than that of Tiflis, the temperature falling in winter to — 20° Fahr., and rising in simuuer to 104° and even 110° Fahr. Hence the frequency of malignant fevers and other epidemics in Erivan. "In Tiflis," says the Armenian, "the yoimg are not to be distinguished from the old ; in Erivan the living are no better than the dead." Fortmiately during the simuner heats the Erivan plain is swept at nightfall bj' a cool north or north-west wind, blowing fiercely from the Ala-goz highlands. It generally begins to blow about five p.m. and lasts the greater jiart of the night, but is accompanied by such clouds of dust, and e\ en sand, that the inhabitants are confined to their houses during its prevalence. All the poplars in the neighbour- hood of Erivan are slightly inclined toward the south-east. These pyramidal poplars are a conspicuous feature of the landscape in the Araxis basin. But a more remarkable plant is the nolbond, a species of ehn, whose leafy branches form a vast canopy of foliage absolutely impenetrable to the eolar rays. Although one of the finest ornamental trees in the world, it is foimd 140 ASLITIC RUSSIA. iiowliere beyoud tlie limits of Russian Armenia. The apricot gro'ws iu all the gardens, and rice, cotton, and sesame are 'also cultivated, besides a viae producing a strons: wine of a bro'vm colour, somewbat like sberrv or madeira. But tbis vine bas to be bxu'ied underground iu winter, and regidarly watered in summer. In tbis climate everytbing perisbes, and the groimd becomes baked like burnt cla}-, except wbere tbe ii-rigating channels convert tbc desert to a grecu oasis. Tbe former irrigation works were all developed by tbe Persians, and an English engineer now proposes to distribute tbe waters of tbe xVrpa-cbai over the desert plains of Sardarabad. ^Meantime held operations are carried ou in tbe most primiti\e fashion. Although skilful traders, the Annenians arc bad agri- culturists, but scarcely worse than their Tatar neighbours. In several districts the land is also exposed to the ravages of wild boars, which haunt the brush- wood and sedgy banks of tbe Lower Araxis. Yet the zealous Tatars hold these imclean beasts in such horror that they will neither soil tbeii- hands by j'ursuing them themselves, nor allow others to interfere with them. IxnABiTAXTs — The Armenians. The chief nation in the Araxis basin, niunerically tbe fourth in Caucasia, and second to tbe Russians alone in influence, are the Armenians, or Hai, Haik, or Ilaikan, as they call themselves. Tbe term Amienia, of Aramrean origin and probably meaning "highlands," is extremely vague, and applied in a general wax to all the region of plateaux overlooked by Ararat. Armenia proper, or Ilayasdan — that is, land of the Haik — has shifted its borders from century to centurj' ■^^'itb tbc political vicissitudes and juigratious of tbc race. At present it comprises most of tbe Araxis basin, a large portion of tbe Kiu'a valley, all tbe Upper Euphrates basin as far as the jimction of the two main head-streams, tbe shores of Lake Van, and a few isolated tracts in Persia about Lake L'rmniyab. Tbe centre of gravity of the nation has been gradually removed northwards from the neighbourhood of Lake ^'an and tbc Eastern Eujibratcs valley, where a ^Tillage stiU bears the national name of Haik. But from all parts of tbe globe tbe scat- tered fragments of tbe people tm-n their eyes towards Ararat and the jDlauis of the Araxis as their true fatherland. Here they are still foimd in tbe most compact and homogeneous masses, and here tbe Armenian tongue is spoken in the greatest purity, approaching nearest to the old language stiU. employed in the churches, but which bas ceased to be ciu-rent since tbe close of tbc fourteenth century. At tbe tune of tbc Russian conquest in 1828 — 30, about 130,000 Armenians of Persia and Turkej' migrated to tbe Araxis and Kura valleys, here replacing the Kurds and Tatars, who in their turn took refuge in tbc lands that had remained in tbe power of the Mohammedans. During tbc war of 1877-8 a simihir cross migration took place. The districts of Ardahan in tbe Ujjper Kura valley, and of Kars in the Araxis basin, lost the greater part of their Mussidman inhabitants, receiving iu their stead a midtitude of Armenians from tbc Upper Euphrates, tbe AE1IE^•LLN TYPES AKD COSTrHES. INHABITANTS— THE AEMENIANS. 141 Clionikb, and especially from the tract ceded to Russia by the treaty of St. Stefano, but restored to Turkey by the Congress of Berlin. These national move- ments were doubtless attended by a frightful loss of life, and even now religious and racial hatred gi\es rise to terrible tragedies. But the popidations have, on the whole, been groujjed more in conformity with their natural affinities. Hitherto no reliable estimate has been formed of the number of Armenians in Asia Minor imdcr ^Moslem ride, but they are probably less mimerous than those subject to Russia.* The whole nation, usually estimated at three and even four millions, woidd seem scarcely to exceed two millions, of whom no less than 200,000 reside in Constantinople. Tiflis, the second Armenian city in nimierical impor- tance, lies also beyond the limits of Armenia proper, and the same is true of several other Transcaucasian to^\^ls in which the Armenian element preponderates. Deprived for centuries of all political unity and national independence, the Armenians have been scattered over the Eastern world since the days of Herodotus, who met them in Babylon. When their country fell a i^rey to foreign conquerors they preferred to become " strangers amongst strangers than remain slaves in their native land." They migrated in multitudes, and since the eleventh century have been settled in Russia, Poland, Bukovina, and Galicia. At present they are found in all the large emporiums of trade from London to Singapore and Shanghae, everywhere distinguished by their commercial enter- prise. They have often been compared with the Jews, whom they certainly equal in religious tenacity, spirit of fellowship, mercantile instincts, and commercial skill. But they are less adventurous, and whereas individual Jews have penetrated to the ends of the earth, sustaining alone the struggle for existence, the Armenians seldom advance except in compact groups. The majority of the nation have also remained in their original homes, where they are far from showing the same aversion as do the Jews to agricultural j^ursuits. In several districts of Trans- caucasia all the peasantry are of Armenian stock, and in some of their villages in the Karabagh district they are occuijied temporarily as masons or carpenters, pursuits which the Jews are never found engaged in. Nevertheless the Semitic element j)robably entered largely into the formation of the Haik race, for numerous migrations and even transportations in mass have taken place from Palestine to Armenia. The Haiks may in a general way be regarded as Aryans closely allied to the Persians ; but during the incessant wars, conquests, and migrations of the last four thousand j'cars thej' have become mingled with all the neighboming peo^jles, and especially with the Jews, midtitudes of whom were removed by the Assyrian kings to the Armenian highlands. The Bagratides, the most famous royal race that has ruled over Hayasdan and Georgia, even claim * Proliable number of Armenians in the world ;— Caucasia and European Russia . . . . . . . 840,000 Asiatic Turkey 760,000 Persia 150,000 European Turkey 250,000 Elsewhere 60,000 Total 2,060,000 VOL. VI. L 142 ASIATIC EUSSIA. to be descended from David of Israel. Amongst the other foreign elements said to have exercised a considerable influence on the nation, mention is made of the Mani- gonian tribe, introduced in the third ceutur_y of the new era into Somkhct, in Armenia, bv a prince of Jenasdan — that is, of China. But the chroniclers show clearly that most of these foreigners, arriving, like th& Normans and Varangians, as warriors and mercenaries, were in fact Iranians, probably allied to the Tajiks of the Oxus basin. The Armenian language is included bj' all philologists in the Aryan family. Its affinities are chiefly with the Bactriau ("Zend"), its sjTitax is completely Iranian, and its vocabidary greatly resembles the Greek and Slavonic. Although very harsh and abounding in consonants, it rivals the Hellenic in its wealth of words and grammatical forms, as well as in its flexible structure and unlimited power of word-building. Still the numerous modern varieties have borrowed largely from Turkish and Georgian, and the speech current in the Lower Araxis basin is a veritable jargon, in ANhich the Tatar element at times prevails over the Hai'kan, while in Shirvan numerous Armenian conimimities have forgotten their mother tongue as completely as have the more distant settlements in Bidco^'ina and Transylvania. In the convent of Echmiadzin, where it is spoken in its jjurest form, it still remains a purel)^ Iranian dialect, whose origin and development are well illustrated in a local literature, continued iminterruptedly over a period of two thousand years. Rock inscriptions in the cimciform character occur in the Van district. Other Hai'kan documents are extant in Persian and Greek letters, and in the flom'ishing literary period (fifth centurj' a.d.), when three hundred schools were open in the coimtrj', the pecidiar alphabet now in use was introduced. The people still show a great love of instruction ; schools are supported in all the communes ; and the villagers have often to contend either -^ath the Russian Government, or with the clergy, jealous of the influence exercised by their teachers. The scientific and literary movement has become very active, and in proportion to their munbers the Armenians probably print more books than anj' other people in the empire. To the former theological, historical, metaphysical, and grammatical works are now added translations of foreign masterpieces, and even in Anatolia are found close students of French literature. In 1854 about twenty-two Armenian presses were at work in Europe and Asia, issuing periodicals in Tiflis, Constantinople, and other towns, and publishing the old monuments of the language, esi^ecially in Moscow, Vienna, Paris, and Venice. The most famous establishment of this sort abroad is the convent founded in 1717 by the monk Mekhitar, or the " Consoler," in the island of San Lazzaro, near Venice. Here are published niauj- valuable documents, and in the library are preserved some rare Oriental manuscripts. The Mekhitarists, like most of the communities residing beyond the limits of Transcaucasia and Turkey, belong to the United Armenian rite, in union with the Roman Church, while preserving some of their traditional practices. But the bulk of the nation in the Euphrates and Araxis valleys have remained faithful to the old Orthodox cult. The dogmatic differences dividing the nation into two hostile religious sects turn chiefly on the nature of Christ, hell, and purgatory, the authority of the councils, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, .and simdry rites. But IN-HABITANTS— THE AEMENIANS. 143 beneath the outward teaching of both forms arc preserved numerous symbols datino- from still older religions. The Armenian was the first nation converted in mass bj^ Gregory the " Illuminator," about the beginning of the fom-th century. But while changing- its deities, it lost few of its traditions, and modified its worship very gradually. The sacred fire is even still commemorated, as in the days of Zoroaster. On the annual feast a recently married couple consume in a copper basin the richest fruits of the earth, flowers of all sorts, ears of corn, the vine and laurel branches. On all important occasions the people turn towards the sun as if to seek for aid from that som-ce. Duriag the great feasts bulls or rams cro^^^lcd with wreaths and decorated with lighted candles are led into the churches or under Fig. 71. — Akasis and Zanga Basik. From the Map of the Etissian StnfF. Scale 1 : COO.noi. C Perron 12 llUes. the sacred trees, and afterwards sacrificed with songs and prayers — evidently the sacrifice of Mithi-a bequeathed by the old to the new religion. The " Katholicos," or sjjiritual head of the nation, derives his power from the possession of a precious relic, the right hand of the martji-ed Gregory. Chosen hj the dignitaries of Echmiadzin when not designated by his predecessor, he is obeyed by all his co-religionists of the Gregorian rite ; he names the bishoj^s, who are nearly always selected from the monkish communities ; and he addresses the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem as a superior. Hence the extreme importance attached by the Russian Government to the possession of Ararat and the sacred convent of Echmiadzin. By seizing this strip of territory, so renowned throughout the East, the ]Musco\-itcs have at the same time secured the sj^iritual ruler of over :2,000,000 human beings. The St. Petersburg authorities, who usually ^-iew with scant favour all religions antagonistic to the Orthodox Greek, L 2 144 ASIATIC EUSSIA. liavc accordingly been careful to treat the Katliolicos ^\'itli the greatest respect, thus acquiring a sort of protective right over all the Armenians settled in Tiu-kej'. On several occasions excessive zeal for the " Russification " of all the inhabitants of the empire has doubtless led to acts of violence and oppression even in Armenia. But the caprice of governors and political dreams do not j)revent the Armenians from, on the whole, exercising a considerable influence in the empire — an influence due to their knowledge of languages, to their tact, often even to their intrigiung spirit and adroitness in gaining access to the bureaucratic circle. They have long enjoyed a large share in the government at Constantinojile, and they have already begun to play a part in 8t. Petersburg analogous to that often exercised by wily Italians at the French Fig. 72.— Armenian- '^''oman-. coiirts. Even in Trans- caucasia they are gradually taking possession of the soil, and constantly encroaching on their Tatar neighbours. The Armenians of Rus- sian Transcaucasia differ little in their physique from the Georgians, except that their features are generally rounder, their neck shorter and thicker. Many are in- clined to obesity, probably from their sedentary habits. With fine heads of browni hair, large, black, and languid eyes, they seem to be of a gentle and abnost melancholy temperament. Yet they do not lack valour in resisting attacks, as sho'mi by the Seven Years" VTar of Independence, which they sustained in the beginning of the eighteenth century against the Persians in the Karabagh highlands, and since then in many local revolts against the Turks. Though thej- do not go about armed with an assortment of pistols and daggers, like the Georgians of the Rion basin, they have contrived far better to preserve their liberties, and have never fallen imder the hard yoke of serfdom, which has been the lot of most of their neighbours. Notwithstanding the prevailing igno- rance, they betray a remarkable degree of intelligence and aptitude, especially in the acquisition of languages. It has been said that " the intelligence of the Georgians is only in their looks, whereas that of the Armenians is in their head." But on the whole they seem to take life too seriously, and are somewhat indifferent to the charms of poetry, although they have produced some good poets even in recent TOPOGRAPHY. lio times. Tlioir favourite studies arc theology, metaphysics, and philology, aud their influence has been chiefly felt in the more solid walks of litcratui-e. Fragments of Eusebius, Philo, Chrysostomus, and other Greek fathers, which were .supi)osed to have been irrevocably lost, have been found in old Armenian trans- lations bj^ the ilekhitarists of Venice and Vienna. In most places the Armenians keep themselves aloof from the surroimding populations, generally forming distinct trading communities, and in the Tatar and Georgian to'^^iis rendering themselves no less indispensable, hated, and despised than the Jews in East Euroj^e and Germany. But popular feeling is of little con- sequence to men living quite apart in the seclusion of the family circle, where they still practise patriarchal habits. The grandfather commands — children, sons-in-law, and grandchildren obey. The wife, condemned to silence till the birth of her first child, wears round her neck and the lower part of her face a thick bandage con- cealing the mouth, and obliging her to converse in signs like a diunb creature. Even after childbirth she speaks only in a low voice till advanced in years, but undertakes all the household duties till the marriage of a sister-in-law. Strangers are rarely welcomed into the domestic circle, and many villages might be traversed without suspecting them to be inhabited, so completely are dwelliugs and gardens walled off from the outer world. The Tatars of the Lower Araxis vaUey differ in no respects from the Turki tribes of the Kura basin. Here also are found a few Gipsies, besides some Kurdish herdsmen, mostl}' temporary immigrants from I'crsian aud Turkish Kurdistan. Amongst them are several hundred Yezides, regarded by all their neighbours with a sort of horror as devil-worshippers. The sedentary Kui-ds are numerous only in the Zangezur district, south-east of the Gok-chai, where they number about 13,000, mostly assimilated in dress, and often even in speech, to the Tatars. Topography. The chief town uf the Ui3i5cr Araxis valley is Kdfjhizinaii, pleasantly situated in the midst of trailing A'ines, cherry, apricot, peach, and other fruit trees. In the same district, but on a tributary of the main stream, lies the capital of Vp^ier Russian Armenia, the celebrated citj- and fortress of luirs, thrice conquered from the Turks in 1828, 1855, and 1877, and definitely ceded to Russia in 1878. Even before the Russo-Turkish wars it had often been exposed to attack. Capital of an Armenian kingdom during the ninth and tenth centuries, it was sacked by Tamerlane, by Amurat III., and again by the Persians, its strategical importance constantly attracting the attention of invaders. For it occupies a central position between the upper basins of the Kura, Araxis, Chorukh, and Euphrates, com- manding all the mountain passes between tho.se valleys. At this point the Kars-chai, confined in a narrow rocky bed, makes a double bend, first jwirtly encircHug the town, aud then sweeping roimd the citadel. Built of lava blocks, and standing on a black basalt eminence, Kars could formerly defy the attacks of its assailants. But since the invention of artillery it was foimd necessary to fortifj- the sui'rounding heights, and during the late war the eleven detached forts 146 ASIATIC EUSSIA. cnclosiug au cutrcuclied camp formed a Hue of defence 11 miles in circimifcrcnce. These forts, with their basalt and obsidian rocks, are the only attractions of a to-mi which, although 6,150 feet above sea-level, ciijoj-s a considerable trade. A carriage road descending eastwards from the Kars-chai to the Arpa-chai valley connects Kars with Alexandrapol, a Russian stronghold whose fortifications have been continued almost uninterruptedly siace 1837. At that time nothing existed here except the village of Gumri, peopled hy Armenian refugees. Situated near the east bank of the Ari^a-chai, in a basin commanded on the south hy the Ala-goz, and 1,330 feet lower do-mi than Kars, Alcxaudrapol lies in a better- cultivated district, abundantly watered by the Arpa-chai. It succeeded to Ani, former residence of the Armenian Bagratidcs, which was destroyed by an earth- quake in 1319, and whose extensive ruins still cover a triangiJar headland overlooking the light bank of the Arpa-chai. According to probably exaggerated Fig. 73. — The K.vrs-ciiai Valley : Kars and Alexaxdrapol. From the Map of the Russian Stiff. Sci'c 1 : £00,r01. 40 E .F V-, ..i 45'50 C Per Ij MUes. accounts of the native chroniclers, Ani had at one time a jiopulation of 100,000, with 1,000 churches and other public buildings. South-east of Ani is Talis//, which also seems to have been an Armenian capital, the ruins of whose high M-alls and towers now afford .shelter to a wretched hamlet. The whole of the Lower Arpa-chai valley is a land of ruins. To the west are the remains of Pakarau, or " Assembly of the Gods," and a little farther south those of two other capitals, Erovantashad and Erovantagcrd, built successively by Erovan II. north of the Araxis and Arpa-chai confluence, and said to have formerly contained 30,000 Jewish and 20,000 xirmenian houses. Armarir, also founded by the same king, has left but few remains on a hill overlooking the plain skirted by the Kara-su Canal, near the Araxis. Lastly, south of this river stands Kara- Kalel), the " Black Castle," wronglj' supposed by some to ha^•e been the ancient Tigranocertes, but still a most picturesque object perched on a fro-\vning precipice, TOPOGRAPHY. U7 ^vith towers built of alternate rows of red porphp-y and black lara, at wliose feet rusli the foaming waters of a nioimtain torrent. Echmiadzin, the present religioiis capital of the Haikans, lies to the west of Erivan, nearly in the middle of the plain. In the neighbourhood is the small town of Yagarshabad, but Echmiadzin itself is little more than a vast convent s\irrounded by a cob-wall, and commanded by a church with pp-amidal bclfrj- and side turrets. The lower storj- of the buildings is concealed by a plain quadrangidar enclosm-e of dull grey walls, so that there is nothing to relieve the monotony of these heavj' masses except the surrounding thicket of poplars and fruit trees, a few ilower beds, and limpid streams. Yet this monastery, whose name means "the onlj' sou has descended," is the capital of the Ai-menian world. Here, according to the legend, the " Son of God " appeared to Gregory the Illiuninator, and at one thimder- stroke hurled the pagan di^-irLitios beneath the earth. For here formerly stood Ardimet- Kaghat, the " City of Ai-temis," the " Armenian Yenus," to whose shrine wor- shippers flocked from all quarters. The deities have changed, but for at least five- and-twenty centiu-ies this has remained a hallowed spot. The library contains six himdred and thirty-five old manuscripts, and its printing-press, the oldest in Ai-menia proper, pubKshes a periodical and some popular works. One of the bells bears a Tibetan inscription with the famous mj'stic words, om manipadini hum, showing that at some unkuo-wn eiDoch Armenia must have had relations with the Buddhist world. Erivan, capital of the chief government in Russian Armenia, and the second city of the Araxis valley, stands at the north-east angle of the old lacustrine basin traversed by the river, and on the banks of the Zanga, hero diverted into a thousand irrigating rills. It is chiefly inhabited by Armenians, who have succeeded to the Tatars occupj-ing it imder the Persian ride. It holds an important commercial and strategical position at the entrance of the upper valley leading to Tiflis and the Km-a basin over the Gok-chai plateau, and its fortress, perched on a columnar basalt cliff, has been the scene of manj' stirring events. Built mostly in the Persian style, it boasts of some picturesque structures, including a handsome moscjue decorated with arabesques, and shaded with magnificent ebus. The district, commanding a superb view of Ararat, is very fertile and well watered. But the wi-etched climate, with its "v-iolent changes of temperatui-e, dust, and fevers, woidd soon depopulate the jilace, but for its extreme strategical importance on the Tui-ko-Pcrsian frontier and the rich rock-salt mines in the neighbourhood. In simmier the Russian officials retire to Semonovka, DeKjan, and other sanitaria among the surroimding hills. The copper mines of this region are no longer worked. East of Erivan are the ruins of Bash-Kami, or Garni, another old capital, which the natives pretend was founded four thousand years ago, and which contains the remains of a Greek temple, probably dedicated to the Armenian Yenus. But more remarkable than its ruins are its basalt columns, blue, green, red, and other igneous rocks, the scene of former eruptions, through which now foams a moimtain stream. In the same wild and rugged region lies Kcgarf, Kergash, or A'irivank, the " Convent of Hell," half of which is hollowed out of the tufa and lavas. In the centre of the plain, watered by the Karni-chai, stood Artajrates, 148 ASIATIC EUSSIA. built by Artaxias, General of Antioclius, on tlie jilains of Hannibal, and -n-liicb remained the capital of Armenia till destro-\-cd bv Corbido in tbc reign of Nero. Lit:- TOPOGEAPHT. 149 It was succeeded by Neronia, wliicli jaelded later ou to Yagarstabad, and was finally overtlirown by Sapor II. in 370, wben its 200,000 Armenian and Jewish inhabitants were put to the sword or carried captive into Persia. Nakhichevan, or Nakhijevan, capital of the district stretching south-east of Ararat, is said to be even an older place than Echmiadzin, having been tradi- tionally founded by Noah after planting the first vine on the slopes of Ararat. Its very name means the " First Dwelling," and a mound is shown in the neighbour- hood in which Noah is supposed to be buried. The town, already mentioned by Pomj)ey imder the name of Naxuana, has been repeatedly rebuilt, and all the present houses are constructed of stones from previous ruins. The gateway of an old palace flanked by two brick minarets bears a Persian inscription surrounded by rich arabesques, and near it stands the " Tower of the Khans," a twelve-sided bailding bearing a long inscription with letters in relief. Nakhichevan is now inhabited chiefly by Tatars occupied with gardening and vine growing, and has been much reduced since the time of the Persian rule, when it had a jjopidation of 40,000. The district is well watered, and in the neighbouring hills are rich salt mines, worked since prehistoric times. The millstones, cut from a variegated sand- stone, are highly esteemed throughout Armenia. South-west of Nakhichevan is the frontier station of Jiifa, on the banks of the Araxis, and facing an old Persian caravanserai, which is coumiauded by a strong- hold perched on a red sandstone escarpment. At the beginning of the seventeenth century Jufa was the richest and most industrious place in Armenia, with a popu- lation of 40,000. But Shah Abbas the " Great " commanded the inhabitants to emigrate in mass to New Jufa, near Ispahan, those who lagged behind being thrown into the river, and the town burnt to the groimd. Its most noteworthy remains are its ruined bridge and the tombs of its vast necropolis. In 1854 the popidation had dwindled to ten families living in a ruined caravanserai. Orditbat stands on the Araxis, below Jufa, near the Migri Gorge, south of the Karabagh Moiuitains. It is the pleasautest place in Armenia, being in a fertile district watered by numerous streamlets and irrigation rills, and studded with villas scattered over the wooded heights of the neighbourhood. A few miles to the north- west is the thriving village of AkuUsi, inhabited by wealthy Armenians. The copper mines of the surrounding hills yielded no more than 117 tons of pure metal in 1877. The double basin of the Berffushet and Akera, between the Ordubat and Shusha imis, comprises the administrative district of Zaugezur, and contains no towns, but several important villages peopled by Armenians, Tatars, and Kurds. The largest is Khinziral:, but the acbuinistrativc capital is Girusi, the Koriss of the Armenians ; that is, the " Village of PUlars," so called from the " needles " of tufa rising above the slope of the terrace on which the village is situated. The flat- roofed houses are disposed in the form of a flight of steps, beneath which the inhabitants move about in underground streets. Other dwellings are excavated in the igneous scoria of the terrace, but the present village is a modern place 1,000 feet lower down than the old Girusi. For a few weeks in simiraer it becomes a busy trading-place, when 50,000 nomads of the surroimding districts drive their flocks to the rich Zaugezur pastures. 150 ASIATIC EUSSIA. VIII.— GENERAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE CAUCASUS. TitE Russians arc not recent arrivals in Caucasia. A portion of tlie Kubau basin was pcoi:)led by them since the close of the tenth century, and in 914 others reached Berda, at the foot of the Karabagh Mountains. Over two hundred years ago Stei^hcn Razin sacked Baku, and in 1723 Peter the Great pushed his conquests to the Persian frontier. For over a century the Musco\'ite power has secured a Fig. 75. — Pkogress op Russian CoNauEST. Scale 1 : 10,500,000. C Perron Seventeenth Ccntmy. 1700—50. 1750—1800. fm X^, ',./// ,^. 1S30— 5S. :859. 1801. 1S60— G4. . 210 Miles. Jil 1878. footing in Transcaucasia, which has been gradually annexed to the empire either by conquest, purchase, or volimtary cession. In spite of wars, migrations, wholesale exiles, and the insalubrity of certain districts, the popidation of Caucasia has rapidly increased since the conquest, although still relatively inferior to that of Euroiican Russia. The losses have been rcjwired by the immigration of the Cossacks, Russian peasantry, and Armenian fugitives, while the population of all ihc provinces has been increased by the normal excess of births over deaths. At the beginning of the military occxqiation Caucasia was a Russian tomb, fevers more than decimating those attacked during GENERAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTEATION OF THE CAUCASUS. 1 51 the com-se of the year. But experience, quinine, a better hygienic system, and here and there the draining of the marshy hmds, have brought about wonderfid improvements, and at present the mortality of the Russians is less than in Russia proper.* A similar j)henomcnon has been observed in Algeria, where the French and Spanish immigrants ha^"c gradually become acclimatized. The actual rate of mortality is less in Caucasia than in any other part of the empii-e, and in this resjjcct the country takes a foremost position in the ■world. The nimiber of suicides is, on the other hand, rather high, and it is remarkable that they are here about equal in both sexes, -svhereas iu Europe those of men are generally three or four Fitr. 76. — Fever Disteicts ix Caucasia. C Perrcn ' Endem'cs. Frequent, Bare. times greater than those of women. Amongst the Armenians and Osses the cases of female suicides are even more frequent than those of males. This is, perhaj)s, due partly to the enforced silence and monotonous lives of the xli-menian women, and partly to the brutal treatment to which the Oss women are subjected. A large portion of Caucasia rising above the zone of cereals can scarcely be inhabited except by a pastoral population. But there are also extensive tracts, formerly imder cultivation, which have been rendered improductive by desolating • Mortality of the army of the Caucasus:— 1837, 1 in 9 of those attacked; 1846, 1 in 17 of those attackccl ; 1SG2. 1 in 41 of those attacked. Total mortaUty :— 1864, 25 in the 1,000 ; 1872, 19-86 in the 1,000. Total mortality in the Moscow district, 41-11 in the 1,000. 152 ASIATIC RUSSIA. wars and the abandonment of tlae irrigation -^-orks. The vast plains of Echmiadzin, the Lower Kura, and Araxis ha\e thus been partly changed to deserts, and even the region confined by the Alazan, Yora, and Kura is now a barren steppe, notwith- standing the cojjious streams surrounding it on all sides. The neglect of the irrigating canals has caused the disappearance of millions, but the population everywhere reapj)ears with the gradual revival of these works and with the progress of the drainage sj'stem. C'ldtivated fields thus succeed to the swamps, and the land becomes at once more healthy and more popidous. Land Tenure — Agriculture. In taking possession of Caucasia the Russian Government introduced great changes, often of a contradictory character, in the laws affecting landed property. These were fiu'ther complicated by all the vicissitudes of conquest, the wasting of cultivated districts, destruction of nomad encampments, depopulation and whole- sale shifting of the people, military and agricultural colonisation. During the first period of Russian rxde all the colonies were of a military character. Composed of Cossacks, at once peasantry and soldiers, they had to build villages and forts, to till the land, dig canals, open up highways, and keep constant watch against the enemy. One feels amazed at the vast amount of work performed by these men, thanks to whom all the western division of Ciscaucasia has been finally settled. Its settle- ment would have been even still more thorough, had not the Government long prevented its peaceful colonisation by the Russian peasantry. Millions of serfs might have migrated to this region had they been free to do so. In all the already peojiled districts of Caucasia the Government at first pursued the simple policy of securing the loyalty of the native princes b}' guaranteeing to them the property of the land, though occasionally compelled, as in Kabardia and Daghestan, to favour the people against their chiefs. But this system was soon abandoned, and towards the end of the reign of Nicholas every effort was made to gain over the local aristocracj'. In many places serfdom was introduced, and large fiefs granted to the nobles. Some of the Kabard princes thus received domains of 30,000, 100,000, and even 250,000 acres, so that the State was afterwards obliged to repurchase many of these lauds cither for the Cossack settlers, or for the com- munes after the abolition of serfdom. The principle was even laid down in 1863 that the whole of the lands should belong to the communes ; but in practice the large properties were maintained, and in Kabardia alone 140 lots, each of about 1,400 acres, were reserved for influential persons likelj- to be usefid to the Govern- ment. All the officers of the army also received freehold allotments independently of the lands assigned to the connuunes, while all the forests and pastures remained undivided. Thus was brought about a state of things analogous to that of Russia. Below the large proprietary class came that of the peasantry, sharing the land according to the commimal system of rotation, and paying an average tax to the State of about 3 roubles per family. The serfdom, which under divers forms prevailed throughout most of Caucasia, LAND TENUEE— AGEICULTTJEE. 153 was at first aggravated under Russian rule, and even when abolislied in 1866 very harsh conditions were imposed on the emancipated. In virtue of " fi-ee contracts " they were bound to pay the landlords either 200 roubles or six years' manual labour, children under fifteen years being charged 150 roubles, or ten years of forced labour'. A^Tacn the serf was at the same time ov\nicr of cattle or movable property this was divided into three parts, of which one part only was assigned to the frcedman. Hence much misery, especially in the lowland districts. The agricultural j^roduce of Caucasia alreadj- suffices for a considerable export trade. Laud was formerly valued in Inieria at fi'om 22 to 28 roubles the hectare (2 J Fi?. 77. — Dexsity of the Popvlatiox of the CArcAsrs ly 1873 per Square Mile. C. Pe'~r'Qn to 10. 10 to 20 20 to 40. 40 to 60. 60 to SO. 80 to 100. 100 and upwaras. acres), whereas now it fetches ten times that amoimt ; but the eastern districts of the Kura and Araxis, exposed to storms and locusts, have increased less rapidly in value. The superabundant cereals are largely used in the distillation of alcohols. Far more than Bessarabia, the Crmiea, or the Lower Don valley, Caucasia is the " vineyard of the empire." In 1875 the land under vines still scarcely exceeded 212,000 acres, but the districts where wine might be grown certainly exceed those of France, and they have hitherto escaped the ravages of the phylloxera, though not those of the oidium. Caucasia supplies most of the wines consmued in the empire, the rich vintages of Kakhetia being used chiefly for the table, those of Kislar and the Lower Terek for 154 ASIATIC EUSSIA. mixing with otiier vintages. In the Alchaltzik disti-ict the ^-iue is cultivated to a height of 4,800 feet ahove the sea. Tobacco is also becoming an important crop, 9,840 acres having yielded 1,700,000 kilogrammes of leaf in 1876, and supjdyiug the chief article of export from the Black Sea ports. The Transcaucasiau plains produce some cotton, which during the American yrar increased rapidly, and even found its way for a time to the markets of the ^Vest. At present the mean annual yield scarcely exceeds 480 tons. The raw silks of Xidcha and Shemakha are highly ajjpreciated, especially bj- the French weavers. Since the spread of the silk disease in the south of France Eastern Caucasia has become one of the most important fields for the production of the finer qualities. In 1848 a number of French female Fig. 78. — HiiinwATS in Caucasia. According to N. de Seidlitz. Scale 1 : 7,6SU,000. 42- 40F Railways. Bailways in progress. Carriage Rouds. , 120 Miles. spinners settled in Zugdidi, Niikha, Shemaklia, and other towns to teach the native women the art of winding the thread. For nianj' other products, csiDccially fruits and spring vegetables, Caucasia is destined to take the same position as regards Russia as Algeria has taken towards France. Tropical heats prevail in the Araxis valley, and wherever sufficientlj' watered the soil produces excellent crops. There is also a succcs.sion of climates on the momitain slopes, suitable for raising produce of the most varied character. Population — Industries — Trade — Editation. The popidation of Caucasia, nowhere as dense as in Western Em'ope, is con- centrated esjjecially on the Mingreliau plains, where the climate and vegetation POPULATION— INDUSTEIES—TEADE— EDUCATION. 155 most resemble those of tlie -svest of France. In tlie districts of this region it amounts to about 80 per square mile, and these more densely peopled tracts are at the same time the most flom-ishiug, and have most to spare for export. The chase and forest produce have ceased to be of any economical importance, since most of the plains have been peopled and the mountain slopes largely cleared. But the fisheries are very productive in the Sea of Azov, the Euxine, and especially the Caspian. The Akhtari and Yeisk limans, the river Kuban, the coasts of Poti and Batum, the Lower Terek, and, above all, the Kura and Gulf of Kizil-Agach abomid in animal life, and contribute largely to the support of the people and to the export trade to Russia and Persia. Manufactures are stiU mostly confined to the old traditional industries, and to those connected -n-ith miuing operations. But implements datiug from the stone age are still found in use side by side with the powerful modern machinery now employed at the Baku naphtha wells, the Kedabek copper miues, the Saglik akmi works, near yelizavetpol, and the iron works of Chasash, in the Bohiis valley, 14 miles south- Fig. 79. — Section- of the Eoi-te fkom Vladikavkaz to Jlta. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. — — V o l> - c -o N ..J£ -,., ^ / V .l,s|. .. "5 ./yys^ £ *- B > Feet. 6500 5200 3900 2Cu0 1300 3;;/.:;;:^ \:f^/^::j^j^ --.1_ Z^ z/^ , Perron 120 Sliles. Scale of Altitudes fifty tim es larger than that of Distances, west of Tiflis.* This state of things must necessarily coutiuue imtil the Caucasian jjroviaces are connected with the rest of the world by means of good roads. Each of the two great divisions has but one railway, one connectiug Ciscaucasia with the Russian .system by the Rostov- Vladikavkaz line, the other connecting Tiflis ^vith the Euxine. But both slopes of the Caucasus are crossed only bj- the military routes j)assing beneath the Kazbek glaciers and over the Mamisson Pass. In the east the range is skirted by the road from Derbend to Baku, and in the west the Abkhasian coast route will soon be opened to tratfic. The great lines of railway destined to connect ^T.adikavkaz with Tiflis, Yclizavetgrad with Petrovsk and Baku, Grozuaj-a with Saratov via, Astrakhan, Batum with Rostov, have only just been begun. The line from Tiflis to Baku, ■\\hiLh \iill complete the jimction of the two seas, has also * Steam-engines in the Caucasian mines (1876), 91 horse-power. Water enginesin the Caucasian mines (1876), 17i horse-power. Mining returns (1876) : — Silver Lead Copper 810 Ihs. Alum 1,785 cwt. Salt 2,.550 „ Coal 130 tons. 24,.530 „ 5,218 „ 156 ASIATIC EUSSIA. been recently taken in liand. For the last twenty years tlie project has been entertained of a great intei-national line between Europe and India, to follow the west coast of the Caspian via Baku and Lenkoran to Reshd, and so on across the Iranian plateau. Meantime the southern plateaux are aj^proached by one good road only, the military route between Kars and Erzerum forming a continuation of that between Tiflis and Kars rid Al(^andrapol, One branch of this route descends southwards towards Erivan and the Persian frontier at Jufa. The general trade of Caucasia must long remain inadequate to meet the expenses of the international highways to Asia Minor and Persia. In 1878 the imports and F!g. SO.— Shiahs and SurraixES in Eastern Cavcasia. From Official Eetums. Scale 1 : 2,000,000. C Perron R^^ ^^^ Christians. Shiahs. Sunnites. ^^^— ^ SO Miles. exports amoimted altogether to about 12,000,000 roubles, or less than 4 roubles per head of the population. iUthough Persia commimicates more easily with Europe by the north than bj- other routes, its exchanges with Transcaucasia and Astrakhan faU short of 5,000,000 roubles. If Caucasia still lacks the material imity imparted by a well- developed railway POPULATION— INDUSTEIES—TEADE- EDUCATION. 157 system aud large commercial marts, it is stiU more deficient in that moral unity which flows from the sentiment of a common nationality or group of natioualities possessing the same interests and aspu-ations. Instruction also is in too backward a state to allow the youth of the various races to acquire that feeling of brotherhood derived from a community of ideas. Nevertheless great progress has been made in this respect, and in many schools the Armenian is now found associated with the Tatar, the Russian with the Georgian. Moreover, a large nimiber of the middle and upper classes send their children abroad. In 1879 there were no less than twenty-eight Armenians in the various schools and colleges of Zurich. But a great Fig. 81.— Baku Hahbouiu Scale 1 : 260,000. C Perron to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. 3 Miles. obstacle to instruction in common is caused not only by the variety of languages, but by the different alphabets in cm-rent use. The Abkhasians, Osses, and Daghestan highlanders were altogether unlettered until Lhiullier, Schiefner, Uslar, and others invented writing systems suitable to express the fifty distinct sounds of their languages. Caucasia, more perhaps than any other region, stands in need of some such common system as that proposed by Lepsius in 1852, and subsequently imder other forms by Bell, Coudereau, and others. VOL. VI. M 158 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Religions — Fixaxce — Admixistratiox. But Caucasia is noted for its diversity of creeds quite as much as for its great variety of speech. Paganism under many forms still survives amongst the hillmen. Here are found the two great Moslem sects, numerous especially in the government of Baku,* where they are distinguished from each other by the cut of the hair and by other practices. Here also dwell Jews, converted Israelites, and Judaizing Christians, besides Orthodox Greeks, Georgian and United Armenians, which are the prevailing forms of Christianity. But dissidents are also numerous, far more so even than might be supposed from the official returns. The Molokanes especially have important colonies in the government of Stavropol, near Tiflis, on the Akha- laki plateau, in the Mugan steppe, and they are now spreading in the annexed territories. All these national and religious differences have necessitated diiferent theories and practices in the administration of justice. Hence, after many useless efforts, the Government has been compelled to abstain, at least for the present, from intro- ducing a common system of jurisprudence. Amongst the Moslem highlanders two codes are stUl maintained — the sliariaf, or religious code based on the Koran, and the adof, or common law. The fonner is appealed to only ia rehgious, family, and testamentary questions, while the latter regxdates the ordinary affairs of property and commimal interests. Its decisions are pronounced in public by elected judges, and certain -s-illages noted for their scruijulous administration of justice have been chosen by usage as veritable coiu-ts of appeal in all doubtfid cases. Most of the hiUmen still foster a feeling of animosity against their conquerors, and recall with pride the daj's of their ancient independence. Amongst the low- landers, some, like the Nogai Tatars and the Tats, know that thej- have kinsmen and co-religionists elsewhere, and regard themselves as strangers in the land. Others, like the Kurd shepherds, are immigrant nomads, always ready to strike their tents. The Georgians feel that their destiny is rather to serve the Russians than become their equals, while the Armenians endeavour to make themselves masters of all by the power of money. The Slav iuvaders, although already the most numerous relatively, have not yet succeeded in giving political cohesion to the popidation. Their ascendancy is mainly of a military character, and Caucasus remains still for them campaigning groimd quite as much as a field for colonisation. From the strategic 2)oint of ^-iew Asia Minor and Persia are completely open to the armies of the Czar. The Euxine has become a Russian lake, while the Caspian belongs still more exclusively to the northern Power. Here the fleet at anchor in the commodious harbour of Baku may at the first signal ship an armed force for the coast of Mazanderau. Alcxaudrapol and Kars, strongholds and arsenals of the first importance, threaten the upper basin of the Euphrates, and all the passes are already in the hands of the Russians. In case of a struggle with England for supremacy in Western Asia, Russia occupies a masterly position. The Bosporus has alrcadj' been three times threatened from the north ; now it may also be attacked * Mohammedans in the Baku government (1873) : — Shiah sect, 270,787 ; Sunnites, 206,121. ■RELIGIONS— FINANCE— ADMINISTRATION. 159 from tlie east. If England reigns supreme in tlie Mediterranean, she would still look in vain for armies strong enough to oppose the Russians in Asiatic Turkey, of which she has, perhaps imjDrudentlj', guaranteed the present limits. Through the Euphrates Aallcy Russia may also at her pleasure advance towards the " holy places " once conquered by the Crusaders, and over which Christians of all sects are endeavouring to acquire a religious preponderance. Is it not further evident that the influence of Russia must increase in that direction ^vith the growth of population in Caucasia ? At all times the peoples of the Ararat and Anti-Caucasus highlands took a large part in the poKtical movements of Western Asia, and these j)eo23les have now become the van of the immense Slavonic nation. Against this formidable power the only barrier would be an alliance of free peoples. But it can scarcely be hoped that the Armenians, Xm-ds, Turks, and Arabs of the Tigris and Fig. 82. — Stavropol. Scale 1 : 800,000. 43' 4I°50 EofG 42 50' C\^errQn ■ 15 Miles. Euphrates basins will soon become emancipated, and forget their religious hatreds and national rivalries sufficiently to vmite against the common foe. The Caucasian f)Coples possess no political pri\ileges over the Slav inhabitants of the empire. All alike are subjected to the same autocratic will of the Czar, whom all are equally boimd to obey " in spirit no less than in act." None of them enjoy constitutions guaranteeing their rights, though several are still more or less protected by wi-itten or unwi-itten codes. The Czar is represented in Caucasia by a lieutenant-general, or viceroy, with full administrative powers. The families of the former native rulers, while deprived of all political authority, are still in the enjojTnent of pensions, privileges, and honours, thanks to the " eternal and faithful submission " sworn by them to the Czar. The Caucasian budget, whose receipts amoimted in 1878 to 6,750,000 roubles, is included in the general finances of the empire. Transcaucasia alone, including M 2 160 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Daghestan, has a general budget, which increased from 5,358,470 roubles iu 1870 to 8,784,980 in 1880, and which woidd amply suffice for the local expenditure, were this not doubled and occasionally quadrui^led by the maintenance of consider- able forces in the frontier fortresses. The deiicit therebj- created varies in time of peace from 18,000,000 to 40,000,000 roubles, rising in time of war to 55,000,000 and xipwards, and amounting in the ten years between 1869 and 1878 altogether to no less than 343,131,000. The receipts in the whole of Caucasia amoimted in 1878 to 16,339,703 roubles, and the expenditiu-e to 71,660,325, leaying a deficit of 55,320,622. The chief receipts are derived from the excise on alcohol, which averages about one-third of the whole income. Caiicasia is administratively divided into proviaces of very imequal extent, all of military origin, and officially designated either as governments, provinces, circles, or divisions. Tiflis, capital of all Caucasia, is at the same time the chief town of Transcaucasia, while Stavropol, advantageously situated on the line of aiiproach to the centre of the main range, is the chief administrative capital of Ciscaucasia. Daghestan, which would seem to belong properly to the northern, has been included in the southern division. So also the district of Kuba is com- prised in the Transcaucasian government of Baku, doubtless owing to the ethnical and religious unity of the popidations dwelling on both slopes in the eastern division of the range. Derbend, or " The Gate," thus remains the political limit of the two regions north and south of the Caucasus. The Appendix contains a table of all the pro-s-inces, ^\'ith their districts, areas, and popidations according to the official returns for 1873 — 7. Here Daghestan has been separated from Transcaucasia proper. The Trans-Caspian district, depending administratively on the militarj- government of Caucasia, and comprising a portion of the still unsettled Turkoman countiy, belongs geographically to the Aralo- Caspian region, from which it cannot properly be separated. ^1^^ ai^} <^ CHAPTER III. THE AEALO-CASPIAN BASIN. BussiAN Turkestan, the Tiirkoman Country, Khiva, Bokhara, Region of the Upper Oxus. I.— GENERAL SURVEY. lEST of the Caspian the limits of Europe are clearly defined by the ancient Ponto-Caspian Strait, which runs as a natural dividing line along the foot of the Caucasus. But north and east of the Caspian Europe and Asia are merged together iu a vast plain, where dreary wastes of sand, clay, or rock, saline stejDpes and muddy swamps, stretch from horizon to horizon. Here the only natural limit of the two continents is the low'est part of the elevated tract between the Aral basin and the Ob vallej'. Both sides of this ridge are studded with countless ill-defined lakelets, the remains of dried-up seas. But beyond it the lowlands stretch away to the foot of the plateaux and highlands forming part of the main continental mountain system. Thus the Aralo-Caspian slope of the Central Asiatic tablelands blends north- westwards with the Russian steppes between Ural and Caspian, while scarcely separated northwards from the Ob vallc}'. But everywhere else it is sharply defined westwards by the Caspian, southwards by the highlands separating it from Persia and Afghanistan, and stretching in an elongated cvu've from the south-east corner of the Caspian to the Hindu-Kush. Eastwards and north-eastwards rise the upland pastiu-es and snowy peaks of the Pamir, the Tian-shan, and Tarbagatai ranges. The whole region, including the Russian protected states, "Wakhan, Badakshan, Balkh, and the Turkoman country, has an estimated area of over 1,200,000 square miles, and to this has now been added a tract of over 400,000 square miles in the Ob basin, henceforth administratively included in the general government of Russian Turkestan.* * Area and population of the Aralo-Caspian lands : — Russian possessions from the .\trpk to the Irtish . Khiva ....... Bokhara . . .... Turkoman country ...... Afghan Turkestan ...... Total Are.a in Square Miles. 1,520,000 23,000 95,500 60,000 54,000 Probable Populalion in 1880. 4,500,000 300,000 2,150,000 200,000 950,000 1,752,500 8,100,000 162 ASIATIC EUSSIA. This region, wliicli slopes westwards and northwards to the Caspian, Aral, and Balkhash, is about equally divided into a lowland and highland district. Climate, flora, and fauna vary as much as the geological formations in a land rising in some places to elevations of 20,000 and 22,000 feet ; in others, as along the Caspian shores, sinking below sea-level. Nevertheless a certain analogy is maintained between the eastern highlands and the western lowlands. In both cases the annual variation of temperature is greater than in Europe or any other sea-girt land. In autumn and winter the north-east polar blasts prevail on the jjlains and uplands, giving place in spring and simimer to the hot equatorial winds from the south-west. Thus the normal climate of each season becomes intensified here as elsewhere in the interior of the continent, so that in Jidy this region is included in the isothermals of 20° to 25° Centigrade, a temperature answering to that of the Cape Verd Islands, 1,650 miles nearer to the equator, while in January the isothermals are those of Canada, South Greenland, and Spitzbergen, some 1,800 miles nearer to the North Pole. But the variation between the hottest and coldest days is even stUl greater, averasinff no less than 130°, or from about 111° to — 12° and even — 20° Fahr. On the j)lains the dryness of the atmosphere and absence of dew add to the rigours of the climate. "Whole years have passed without any rainfall, and in 1858 the rains lasted only four hours altogether in the Kara-kum Desert. The moistiu-e borne by the south-west breezes is precipitated on the slopes of the Pamir and in the Tian- shan valleys ; but even here the discharge is relatively far less than on the European and Indian highlands. Another characteristic of Russian Turkestan is the continuous drying up of the soil going on throughout the whole of the jDresent geological epoch. The twin rivers, Oxus and Sir-daria, flowing from the Pamir and Tian-shan nearly paralj^l to each other, at present discharge their waters into the Aral Sea ; but these formerly far more copious streams united in a common channel, disemboguing in the Caspian. Though still ranking in length amongst the great Asiatic rivers — over 1,200 miles each — they are far inferior in volume to the Siberian, Chinese, and Indian streams flowing seawards. Their basins show evident signs of gradual absorption — old channels now partially filled up, numerous rivers formerly reaching the main streams, but now lost in the sands, or expanding into brackish morasses, thousands of lakelets now indicated only by saline incrustations. Even the large inland seas, such as Aral and Balkhash, have diminished in size, while others have been replaced by the Kulja and Ferghana plains. Owing to this continually increasing dryness a large portion of the comitry has been transformed to steppe lands even on the higher grounds, as on the Pamir, Tian-shan, and Tarbagatai, where the growth of vegetation is limited to three months, partly by the winter snows, partly by the summer droughts. Such a region is necessarily but thinly inhabited, the average being rather less than four persons to the square mile, or six or seven times less than in Caucasia, notwithstanding its vast extent of waste lands. But the local traditions, historical records, and the ruins of nirmerous cities leave no doubt that the country was formerly far more densely peopled. The inhabitants have disappeared with the running waters. The powerfid empires of the Oxus and Sogdiana basins have GENERAL SUEVET. 163 vanished ; the great centres of Eastern civilisation have become eclipsed ; many cultured peojjles have reverted to barbarism ; and the nomad has triumphed over the agricultural state. Even the ruling race has changed, the original Arvan element having been largely replaced by Turkomans, Kirghiz, and other Turki peoples.* The upland Pamii- valleys from Xarateghin to Wakhan are still occupied by Aryan agricidtural tribes, some probably autochthonous, others di-iven to the highlands when the plaias were over- rim by the nomads from ^'S' 83.— Routes of Explorers in the Ahalo-Caspian Basin. the north-east. The ethnical Scale 17 : 400,000. evolution begun by climatic changes was hastened by wars and massacres. But the m-bau populations were rendered partly independent of the changed outward conditions by trade and in- dustry, so that the original stock, diversely intermingled with the intruders, has here held its groimd to the pre- sent time. Aryan and TCirki peoples thus continue to dwell in the same towns, forming distinct commimi- ties, which adapt themselves to the sui-roimdings accord- ing to their respective tem- peraments and hereditary habits. Hence, in a political sense alone, the Oxus has for ages served as the limit between Iran and Turau. North of this river Iran has at aU times maintained a footing in the midst of the Txu'anian peoples. And now the incentive to a higher development flows once more from a race of Aryan stock. The Russians, strong in the power imparted by a superior cidture, are enabled to grapple with the diiBculties of climate and vast distances in con- solidating their new Aralo-Caspian conquests. After haA-ing surveyed the land as 40 , 300 Miles. • Throughout this work the term TurH ig to he taken as practically synonj-mcus with the popular hut less accurate Tatar, or "Tartar." Farther on occurs the expression " Turanian," used in a very vague way hy most ethnologists. Here it will he strictly limited to the Turki nomad as opposed to the Ii'anian settled populations. — Ed. ir.1 ASTATIC RUSSIA. naturalists, traders, or envoys, they have settled do\\Tias its political masters. They establish themselves in the already existing towns, foimd others on more favourable commercial and strategical sites, and have even begun a more systematic colonisa- tion in the upland valleys east of the Tatar plains, thus assigning definite limits to the nomad regions. Lines of steamers on the two main streams, roads, and, later on, railways, will cause the hitherto insurmountable distances to vanish, thus enabling the Slav element aU the more easily to establish its political and social predominance. In the midst of Tajilis, Sartes, and Uzbcgs, Tashkend and Samar- Fig. 84. — ExssiAN Encroachments is Tvrkestan. Scale 1 : 2-2,000,000. rV^ ~ V SanvarKanci ■ y^ __^ C oFG 55" 70' '^ ''^srrQn Possessions in 1865 . In 1875. In ISSl. ^^-^^ 300 Miles. kand are becoming Kussian cities, just as Kazan has been Eussified in the midst of the Tatars, Chuvashes, and Cheremissians of the Volga basin. Since the middle of the present century the Russian power has rapidly advanced in this region, notwithstanding the final limits fi'om time to time laid down by the St. Petersburg authorities. Since the capture of Ak-Mejid, on the Sii-, in 1853, a territory of about 400,000 square miles has been acquired, jDartly through the caprice of some ambitious captain, partly imder pretext of chastising some unruly tribe. Gorchakov's circular of 1864 limited the farther advance of the imperial arms to a few settled tracts beyond the nomad districts, " where both interest and reason required them to stoj)." But since then vast strides have been made towards the subjection of the whole Aralo-Caspian basin, and by the fall of Geok-tepe in Januarj', 1881, the independence of Merv and of the few remaining Turkoman tribes is directly menaced. An official treaty concluded in 1873 between Russia and England includes a large portion of their territorj' in the Afghan states. But such THE PAMIE AND ALAI. 165 diplomatic triflings cannot jirevent Russian influence from making itself more and more felt in these regions, wLicli arc cut off from Afghanistan proper by the Iliudu-Kush, and which belong physically and ethnically to the Aralo-Caspian basin. All the lowlands stretching from the Caspian to the foot of the Pamir, and from the Iranian tableland to the sources of the Ob and Irtish, may already be considered as practically Russian territory, separated by a single range from British India or its immediate dependencies. East of Turkestan the Russians have for neighbours the Chinese, whose empire is separated from them by the Pamir, the Tian-shan, and farther east by a con- ventional lino rmming through the gates of Zimgaria, and at many points offering no obstacle to invasion. But so far from having anything to fear from the possible irruption of some modem Jenghis Khan, here the advantage is entirely on the side of the Russians, both in arms, resom'ces, strategical positions, and military science. II.— THE PAMIR AND ALAI. The Pamir and Tibet, which converge north of India and east of the Oxus, form jointly the culminating land of the continent. Disposed at right angles, and parallel, the one to the equator, the other to the meridian, they constitute the so- called " Roof," or " Crown of the "World," though this expression is more usually restricted to the Pamir alone. With its escarpments, rising above the Oxus and Tarim plains west and east, the Pamir occupies, in the heart of the continent, an estimated area of 30,000 square miles. "With its coimterforts projecting some 300 miles, it forms the western headland of all the plateaux and moimtain systems skirting the Chinese Empire ; it completely separates the two halves of Asia, and forms an almost impassable barrier to migration and warlike incursions. Yet notwithstanding its mean elevation of 13,000 feet above arable land, it has been frequently crossed by small caravans of traders or travellers, and by light colmnns of troops. The attempt could not fail to be frequently made to take the shortest route across the region separating the Oxus from Kashgaria, and Europe from China. Hence the Pamir has often been traversed bj' Greeks, Romans, Ai'abs, Italians, Chinese, some as traders, some as explorers, some inspired by religious zeal. But of these travellers very few have left any record of their journey, and all took the lowest routes across the plateau. Here are neither towns nor cultivated land, so that it becomes difiicult to identif J' anj^ of the former routes. It was reserved for modern explorers to convey a general idea of the plateau, by their methodic surveys introducing order into the confused nomenclature of the ancients, reconstructing the geography of Central Asia, and getting rid of the fanciful mountain ranges traced at hap- hazard on the maps. The imaginary " Bolor," which, according to Hmuboldt, formed the axis of the continent, has already vanished, at least as a line of crested heights, and, like the Imaus of the ancients, it is now merged in the broad table- land of the Pamir. The name itself wovdd seem to have been restricted to a district near the Hindu-Kush, probably identical with the present Dardistan. 166 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Traders from Greece began, about the twelfth century of the new era, if not earlier, to become acquainted with the routes over the Pamir to Serica, or " the Land of Silk." Being ab-eady established in Baktriana, on the valley of the Middle Oxus, the Greeks naturally sought to cross the plateau by ascending the Oxus until stopped by some impassable gorge. Ptolemy, relying on older documents, tells us, in fact, that they proceeded northwards to the country of the Comedes, whose name possibly survives in that of the town of Kabadian. Farther on the Fig. 85. — Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Pamir. Scale 1 : 4,500,000. C. PerrofT 00 llUes. road followed the foot of the plateau by the valley of the Oxus, and probably of its tributary the Surgh-ab, riuming thence towards the " Stone Tower," the chief station and resting-place on this drearj' jomiie^-. This tower Eawlinson seems inclined to identify with one of the nmnerous tash-kurgan, or cairns, scattered over this region. It stands 11,000 feet above the sea, on a head-stream of the Yarkand, at the eastern base of the Pamir in Sirikol. But it does not seem probable that, in order to pass from the Surgh-ab to the Tarim (Oechardes) valley, THE PAMIE AND ALAI. 167 the cara-\ ans -vrould have tiu-ned so far to the south-east, besides which Gordon regards this cairn as in any case of recent origin. T\70 hundred years before the Greeks had crossed the Pamir the Chinese had made the acquaintance of the peoples dwelling on the Sir and Oxus, ^vith whom they had established relations through the passes of the Tsuug-ling, or Pamir of the Russian geographers. After Chang- Eien's expedition (probably about 128 a.d.) trade was rapidly developed, and large Chinese caravans soon found their way dii'ectly fi-om the Tarim to the Sir basin in the "Tavan" country. To these caravans has been attributed the introduction into China of the ^-ine, walnut, pomegranate, bean, cucumber, parsley, lucern, saffron, and sesame. Coming from the Tarim valley, the Chinese traders naturally sought to cross the heights at their narrowest point. They skirted on the north-east the Pamir and Ala'i by the Terek- davan, but we also know from contemporary records that they crossed the Pamir directly by the southern passes in order to reach the Oxus and Ki-pin, or Kabulistan. This direct commercial movement between east and west was interrupted by ci^^l wars and migrations. But the routes over the Pamir were reopened by the Buddhist missionaries and pilgrims. Hwen-T'sang, the most famous of these pilgrims, describes the journey of sixteen years' dm'ation which he made across Central Asia in the first half of the seventh century, and a sufficient number of names in his itinerarj' have been identified to enable us to follow him over the Southern Pamir through Sirikol, TTakhan, and Badakshan. This is nearly the same route as that taken by Marco Polo in company with his father and uncle in 1'27'2 — o. But this traveller seems to have passed more to the north, instead of ascending the Upper Oxus crossing the Pamir in a north-easterly direction, travelling " twelve days on horseback " in a region " without dwellings or pasture." In 1603 the Catholic missionary, Benedict Goes, also crossed the Southern Pamir, probablj' by the same route as Hwen-T'sang. But two hundi-ed 3-ears elapsed before it was agam approached by a European traveller. In 1838 Wood ascended a head- stream of the Oxus to the Sari-kul, or Kul-kaHan, and with this journey begins the era of modern scientific exploration. In 1868 Haj-ward visited the south-east corner of the plateau ; the Hindu emissaries of the Indian Topographic Bureau also traversed the " Great " and " Little " Pamir ; the Greek Potagos penetrated, in 1871, from Badakshan to Kashgar; and in 1873 Forsyth, Gordon, and Trotter crossed the plateau to Badakshan, and sent a Hindu geometrician to visit Shignan and Roshan. But the Northern Pamir has ceased to be ■\'isited ever since the epoch of Chinese supremacy. The Arabs, masters of the Sir valley, sent their trading- expeditions by relatively easier routes round the northern base of the Tian-shan, and the same route was followed by the Em-opean envoys to the Mongol coiirt. The rediscover}' of the Xorthern Pamir is due to the Hindu Abdid Mejid, who was the first to cross the Pamir from south to north in 1861, and to the Russian explorers, Fedchenko, Kostenko, MusiLketov, Sieverzov, Oshanin, and others. Over four-fifths of the whole area have already been surveyed, and Sieverzov's expedition of 1878 came ^\"ithin some 30 miles of the English exploration of 1873. About ASIATIC EUSSIA. i'MJiiJ '■■ Pitt, I, ,1 'I I II Li 1 m %^, ' 'i B>iiiliilM " I i|||ilVii III iiiliillll ii I I I I I 1 1 1 ' "i' I I'll I |ii'"j V i|i'|i '"I'-i i|i,i o H p «! s to a '"i"i!.iNiii.>iiiiniiii.iii'i!r.!aiiii;jii,:;i:iiji;i;i'||jii;,;Li'Ji: t^venty important points have been determined astronomically; t],e elevations of t^^■o thousand places have been accurately taken ; and it is now certain that no heights of any consequence have escaped observation. FLORA, FAUNA. LAKES OF THE PAMIR. 1G9 Althougli rising 13,000 feet above the Turkestan plains, the Pamir is limited north and south by ranges towering 7,000 and even 10,000 feet higher. On the south the Hindu-Kush, continued bj' the mountains connecting it with the Kuen- lim, forms the great parting-line of the Indus basin. On the north the Trans- Alai and the Alai, fonning geographically a section of the Tian-shan, separate the Pamir from the slopes draining to the Sir-daria. But the region thus com- prised between two escarpments rmming west-south-west and east-north-east is far from presenting a uniform surface, for it is divided into a nimiber of smaller Pamii's bj- ridges and deep ravines, through which the streams drain, west to the Oxus, east to the Tarim, T\-ithout any well-defined water-parting. The relief of the uplands, even excluding the distinct ridges, presents deviations of over 3,000 feet, which suffice to produce a certain variety in the climate and scanty flora of the plateau. Still the ridges offer no effectual barrier to the nomad Kirghiz pastors or travellers, and the Pamii- is crossed in every direction by a thousand tracks. In the north the eminences attain a relative height of no more than 1,000 to 1,500 feet, while in the centre and between the Eang-kul and Yashil-kid the routes may be compared to artificial highways. In the west General Abramov was able to transport a battery over the Alai, so that with modern appliances the Pamir presents no instu-mountable obstacles even to weU-aiipointed military expeditions, at least dm-ing the fom- months from June to September. At other times the sm'face is covered with snow and exposed to fierce gales, rendering the Pamir imiuhabitable. Below the upper clays and sands the Alai' rocks consist of granites and crystal- line schists. The granites run precisely in the same dii'ection as the Tian-shan and the spurs projecting westwards into the Turkestan lowlands. But the inter- vening spaces are occupied by triassic and other more recent formations. The general tilt of the land is towards the west and south-west, and the somewhat ill-deiined water-parting lies much nearer to the Eastern Tarim than to the Western Ai-alo- Caspian basia. On its eastern verge also rises Moimt Tagharma, or Taghalma, culminating point of the land. This mountaia, known also as the Wi-tagh ("House Mount") and Muz-tagh-ata ("Father of the Ice Moimts"), rises, according to Trotter and Kosteuko, to a height of 25,500 feet, and is con- tinued south-eastwards by the Chichiklik, which is itself about 20,000 feet high. These highlands, which run transversely with the Tian-shan, are the Tsung-ling, or " Onion Mountains," of the Chinese, and the Kizil-art of the Kashgarians. The Pamir is often swept by terrific gales from the north-east, where its sheltering moimtaia bai-rier is broken at several points. On the shores of the Kara-kid and in the sandy gorge of the KizU-art the very rocks are worn by the sands incessantly plaj-ing on them from the north. In these lofty regions the air is generally very dry and clear, except when clouded by the powdered mists of the desert winds. The extremes of temperatm-e occasioned by this transparent atmosphere, combined with the snow-storms, which prevail chiefly ia February and March, are amongst the princijjal dangers to which travellers are exposed. They also suffer much from "mountain sickness " and distressing; headaches. 170 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Flora, Fauxa, Lakes of the Pajmir. The Pamir is frequented ia summer by Kirghiz nomads, \rith their flocks from Khokand and Karateghin in the north, an^ from Shignan in the west. Cairns are scattered here and there, marking old camping grounds, or the graves of Kirghiz " saints," decked with sheep's horns and fluttering rags. Abore the line of arborescent vegetation, indicated by the vrillow, dwarf birch, jumper, and thorny shrubs, the only available fuel is that afforded by the wood of roots of a species of lavender, while stiU. higher up even this resource fails. Yet ia many places, even at altitudes of 13,000 feet, the grass is as thick as on the grazing grounds of West Europe, and perhaps richer. Marco Polo's statement that the Pamir affords the best pasture ru the world, fattening a lean hack in ten days, is confirmed by recent explorers and their Wakhi guides. In the upland Sirikol valley sloping towards Kashgaria barley, haricots, and other plants are cultivated as high as 10,300 feet. Yet the parallel ridges, especially ia the north, are almost destitute of vegetation, and here nothing grows except in the moist hollows on the banks of the lakes and rivulets. The fauna is much richer than was formerly supposed. Sieverzov found in 1878 no less than 112 species of birds at an elevation at which on the Alps there Fig. 87. — Eelief or the TTtr wt tv ng axd Plateavx betsteex the Hixdv-Kush axd Tiax-shan. Scale 1 : 13,900.000. ^ ^ ii ^ ii ^ 1 1 J5_____ ^ 1 1 _^1 ^ Ls-^-oe -;■ Atr 55- r h i r n - S /i M n famin Plciteaa. ■ o'r'O Miles. are no more than a dozen. The muddy shores of the lakes show traces of the chamois, hare, deer, fox, bear, wolf, lynx, leopard, and on the Great Pamir are wild goats like tho.se of the Himalayas. But the typical auimal of the plateau is the so-caUed kachhar, or arhhar {^Oiis poll), a species of sheep over 3 feet high, weighiag from 400 to 430 lbs., and distinguished by enormous horns iacUned backwards in a double spiral. Formerly very numerous, the kachkar seems to be disappearing from the Pamir, and in the north it was nearly swept away by the epidemic of 1869. Potagos appears to have met a small species of monkey ia the upland valleys of the south ; but the bear has vanished from the north, and the tiger spoken of by some travellers was more probably a leopard. Traces of increasiag aridity are no less evident on the Pamir than elsewhere in the Aralo-Caspian basin. A great many lakes have already ceased to overflow, and have been gradually changed to isolated saHne or brackish tarns. Such is the THE ALAI HIGHLAND. 171 Sussik-kiil in the south, though the Eang-kul still retains its sweetness, thanks to the stream through which it drains to a tributai'y of the Oxus. In many places the old lakes are now indicated by incrustations of salt and magnesia. The Kara-kul, or " Black Lake," so called from its deep blue colour, is the largest on the Pamir, but seems at present to be passing through a transition l^eriod. Situated immediately south of the Kizil-art, it is everywhere enclosed by snowy mountains, but its vast basin is no longer entirely flooded. Its present area is about 120 square miles, but its former extent is clearly marked by numerous islands, peninsulas, swampy flats, and the dazzling white incrustations of magnesia met with along its shores. It is divided into two halves by a ridge rimning north and south, and connected with the mainland by a strip of sand. Its feeders no longer compensate for the loss by evaporation, the rainfall is very sHght, and nearly all the moisture is discharged either as hail in summer or snow in winter. Before Kostenko's \'isit the lake was represented as draining either to the Kashgar or to the Oxus, or even to both basins. But if it ever existed the outlet through the Markan-su north-east to the Kashgar has long been dried ujd, while that flow- ing south to the Oxus seems to be intermittent, during high floods still sending a little water through the Chou-su or Ak-baital to that river. Being thus without a regular outflow, its waters have become so bitter that animals will only drink them when sufEeriug from extreme thirst. But they are always clear, and apparently stocked with fish. According to the nomads the level of the lake rises regularly every Fridaj^ a belief Xostenko seems half inclined to credit. Koros- tovzev also speaks of regular risings, without, however, indicating their duration. The Alai Highland. North of the Pamir the two i3arallel ramparts of the Trans-Ala'i and Alai belong to the Tian-shan system, and their geological structure, according to Mushketov, is the same. But these diorite and granite masses being sej)arated by the Kog-art and Terek-davan * Passes from that range, they may be regarded as forming an independent system. This western section of the Tian-shan, merging in the Turkestan plains between the Sir and Oxus basins, has a length of 420 miles, and, like the Tian-shan proper, consists of various ridges running either east-north- east or north-west, and crossing each other at intervals. At the north-east corner of the Pamir the two ranges present a remarkably regular appearance. The Ala'i, or Kichi-Alai, forming the water-parting between the Sir, Oxus, and Tarim basins, sharply limits the Ferghana depression by a barrier of crests with a mean elevation of from 13,000 to 18,000 feet, which are separated from each other by elevated passes. Of these one of the lowest is the Isfai'ram Pass, 12,000 feet high, at one of the "breaks" in the Alai, where the chain suddenly takes a westerly direction. From a neighbouring bluff a view is afforded of the snowy monarch of the Trans-Ala'i, which Fedchenko has named * The Tian-shan passes hear the Tatar names of dman or dahan, art or yart, bel and kutal. The dnvttn is a difficult rocky defile, the art a dangerous gap at a high elevation, the bel a low and easy pass, the hital a hroad opening hetween low hills (Fedchenko). 172 ASIATIC RUSSIA. the Kaufmann Peak, and wLicli is jirobably the culminating point of the whole Tian-shan S3'stem. A little farther east rises a group of three other crests, of nearly equal elevation, the Gurumdi of the Kirghiz. The space between the Alai and Trans- Alai is regarded as forming a separate plateau, a sort of advanced platform or landing-place in the descent from the " Roof of the World" down to the F«rghaua valley. It forms the bed of a dried- up lake, at its most elevated j^lace, no less than 24 miles broad, and stretching in a narrower channel north-east and south-west. The upper part, known as the Bash- Alai, or " Head of the Alai," is the " Paradise " of the Kirghiz, though a Fig. 88.— The Alai PL.iTEAU. Scile 1 : 640,000. E.oP G., 7Q'Q0 72 50 C Perron 12 Miles. paradise they can visit only for three or four months in the j'^ear. It forms the water-parting between the Oxus and Kashgar basins, and the two streams that here take their rise are both called the Kizil-su, or " Ped River," from the colour of their banlcs. Most of their tributary rivnlets have also a reddish tinge, due no doubt to the clays deposited by the old glaciers. In those flou-ing towards the Western Kizil-su, the Surgh-ab of the Tajiks, Fedchenko discovered a species of trout not met with in any other Turkestan river, and jjrobably allied to that found by Griffith in another tributary of the Oxus near Bamian. This fish seems to have been driven by the change of climate from the plains to the mountain torrents. M I 1 1, 1 1 THE ALAl HIGHLAND. 173 Fig. 89. — The Shchuboyskiv Glacier. Scale 1 : 320,000. 40 i O''-' VTest of the Lsfairain and Kara-kazik Pass the Alai rises gradually in a parallel line "srith some northern ridges traversed by the streams flowing to Ferghana. It is connected by spurs with these ridges, the whole constituting, north of the sources of the Zarafshan, a highland region rising 6,000 or 7,000 feet above the snow- line, and sending do^vn mighty glaciers to the surrounding upland valleys. From the highest peak of these high- lands, the culminating point of the Alai proper, the Shchurovskiy glacier flows northwards, while from the slopes of the Khotur-tau and neighbouring mountains there descend nimierous torrents and cascades, a phenomenon elsewhere as rare in the Central Asiatic highlands as on the slopes of the Caucasus. Here the forests, far inferior in beauty to those of Europe, are com- posed largely of the archa, a species of juniper (^Jidifpcrui pseudo-sabina^, which flourishes at an elevation of 5,000 feet and upwards. The Kara-tau, which forms a western continuation of the Alai, main- tains an altitude of over 13,000 feet to the south of Tashkend, beyond which it falls somewhat rapidly in the direc- tion of Samarkand, while throwing off at a sharp angle another sj)ur towards the north-west. The various sections of the.se mountains, which are inter- rupted by broad gaps, are known by different names, such as the Ura-tepe, the Julan or Sausar-tau, Kara-tau, and Nura-tau. The parallel ridges running between the Alai and ^^estern Pamir have a greater mean altitude than the outer chain ; but they are di%-ided by mountain torrents into a number of distinct frag- ments, nowhere fonning any decided water-parting. Thus the Trans- Alai is divided on the west of the Karateghin Moun- tains by the Ters-agar, whence flow two streams in opposite directions, northwards to the Tuz-altin-dara, a tributary of the Surgh-ab, southwards to the Muk-su. Farther west the Surgh-ab itself pierces the Karateghin range to effect a jimction with the VOL. VI. N 70 \'^ E of G 70 2o C PcTOn 174 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Muk-sii, which is formed by throe head-streams, one of which is fed by a glacier over a mile broad, and at its lower extremity about 100 feet thick. The Sel-su valley is fiUed by a stiU larger glacier, at least 10 miles long, which Oshanin, the fii-st explorer of this region, has named after the celebrated traveUer Fedchenko. p-jo-. 90.— EOI-TES OF ExrLOKERS IN THE WESTERN" PaMIR. Acfoiding to Kmrntkin. Scale 1 : 3,600,000. E.of G C.Perrpo . 60 Miles. West of the Alai, where all the parallel chains converge in a snowy plateau sending down glaciers to the surrounding cirques, the two parallel Zarafshan and Hissar ranges are also pierced by river valleys. But here the chains begin to branch off like a fan, gradually falling towards the plains, where they reappear here and there in isolated rocky eminences. Between Samarkand and Hissar some THE TIAN-SHAN. 175 of the peaks still rise above the snow-line, and although less elevated than the Kaufmann Peak of the Trans- Ala'i, they perhaps present a grander appearance, thanks to their greater relative height above the surrounding district.* III.— THE TIAN-SH.iN. Of the Asiatic mountain sj'steins sloping northwards this is the largest both in extent, elevation, the abundance of its snows and glacier masses. The title of Tian-shan, or "Celestial Mountaias," was conferred on it by the Chinese, doubtless from the elevation of its snowj' peaks blendiag with the fleecy welkin. Its lofty crests have ever formed one of the chief barriers to migration, conquest, and commercial intercourse, and these mountains have at all times been avoided eastwards by the Zungarian passes. Till recently the Eussians themselves, notwithstanding their mUitary resources and superior culture, have stopped short at the northern base of Fig. 91. — Relative Aee,\ of the Ti,\x-shax, Alps, A^■D Pykexees. Scale 1 : *24,00n.00<1. ^, -. s^;>*^^^^^ Pyrenees. Alps. Tian-shan. , 600 Miles. the range, which for them formed the limit of tbe known world, and which was masked by vast deserts, swamps, and shallow lakes. Its pas.ses are approached by no great river valley except that of the Su--darla, which, like all the other streams flowing from the Tian-shan, is lost in a land-locked lake. Although forming the chief mountain mass of Asia nortb of the Himalayas and Kuen-lun, this range is nevertheless of far less hydrographic importance than the secondaiy * Chief elevations of the Pamir and Alai system : — Tamir. Feet. Bash-Alai Feet. 11,000 Kizil-nrt Pass 14,240 AlaT-tagh. highest point 19,330 Kara-kul 13,400 Alai-tagh, mean height . 16,000 Uz-hel Pass, south of Kara-kiil . 15,100 ShchuroTskiy Glacier, lower extremity 11,900 Snow-line . 15,500 Kaufmann Peak, Trans-Alai Ters-agar Pass . 25,000 9,850 Alai. Trans- .-Vlai snow-line . 14,160 Teret-daran 10,460 Shelveli 25,000 Isfairani 12,000 Saud.al 25,000 Kavuk . . 13,.300 Chabdara (Hissar Mountains) 18,600 Kara-kazik . • 14,630 N Hasreti-Sultan .... 2 15,000 176 ASIATIC EUSSIA. masses, where rise the great Siberian rivers — Ob, Yenisei, and Lena. The Tian- shan is, in fact, entirely comprised within the central region of the continent, which has an exclusively inland drainage. It belongs to the region of steppes, deserts, half dried-up lakes and saline marshes, which form the " inner continent " enclosed within the Asiatic mainland. Nor is it inhabited except verj- thinly in the valleys, on its outskii'ts, and on some of its plateaux, so that while twenty-five times larger, it has less than one-tenth the population of the Swiss Alps. It also forms an ethnical and political parting-line, on the one hand limiting the domain of the Mongolians, Kirghiz, Zungarians, and Tajiks, on the other forming almost every- where the political frontier of the Russian and Chinese Empires. According to the most recent surveys this system forms altogether a more extensive highland mass than all the Em-opean moimtains collectively, from the Eastern Carpathians to the Sierra Xevada. The term Tian-shan, restricted by Semyonov to the crests north of the Issik-kid, and by Humboldt to the chains between the rivers Xarin and Kashgar, is extended by Hwen-T'sang to the region Fig. 92. — Eelative Relief of the Tiax-9h.\>-, Alps, and Ptkexees. Scale 1 : 24.000,(100. ---■-A yAi'A.- Pyr-mn ima t*/*-»-XA«» izm isso: IS2CC! liCC 3750 (SCO 32SC SEA Verticiil fift^- times Lxrger than the Horizont.il Sc.ile. ^^^^^—^—^^^^—^^— 600 ^ililes. C Perron east of the Kian-tengri, and the geographic miity of the vast highland tract stretching from Zungaria to the Tm-kestan ranges has now for the first time been recognised by Sieverzov. "As I proceeded south-westwards," says this traveller, " I had snowy crests for months together on my left. After passing the Ala-tau of Semirechinsk, I sighted the white Talgar and the other peaks of the Ala-tau bej-ond the Hi. The Alexander Chain was succeeded still by others and others, and the Celestial iloimtains seemed to continue in an endless line of sierras." Orogeaphtc System. The Tian-shan begins in Mongolia with a simple rocky crest rising above the bed of the " Dried-up Sea," the Han-hai of the Chinese. But this crest, which rims west-south-westwards, is soon joined by a second, and then by several others, connected by intermediate plateaux, and broadening their bases till they have stretched across 8^ of latitude. Towards the centre the plateau sujjporting the ranges gradually narrows, and the parallel ridges become reduced in nimibers, until at last the Tian-shan, towards its western extremity, loses its name and merges with a few rocky eminences in the Titrkestan lowlands. The various chains running OROGRAPHIC SYSTEM. 177 east and west are collective!}' about 1,500 miles long, witli a mean breadtli of at least 240 miles, and a total area of 400,000 square miles. All the ridges do not run miiformly east-north-east and west-south-west, or simply east and west, for several stretch rn parallel lines south-east and north-west, or else east-south-east and west-south-west. These last are formed of diorites, while the main chain consists of granites and syenites. The whole sj'stem is intersected by one only of the secondary chains, that which skirts the Ferghana plains on the east, forming the western escarpment of all the central plateau. The outer chains spread out like a fan beyond the main range, thus enclosing valleys of triangular shape. The Sir-daria and its tributaries, like the other streams flo^raig to the stepjje lakes, run first eastwards through one of the intermediate valleys of the Tian- shan proper, and are then deflected north-west by the outer chains. In the heart Fig. 93. — Chief Crests of the Tian-shan. Scale 1 : 22,000,000. 43 Turkestan. 4Cf E ofG ^0- 90" C Penncn \^^' Old Lakes. COO Miles. of the system all the valleys, like those of the Alai, Pamir, and East Siberia, belong to very old geological ej)ochs, for triassic and Jurassic strata have here been regularly deposited between the cr}'stalline, Devonian, and carboniferous crests of the main ranges. Here are also vast layers of loess, in some places 1,000 feet thick, and by their uniform yellow-grey colour imparting a wearisome monotony to the landscape. Till the middle of the present century the Tian-.shan was one of the least-known regions on the globe. But since then the steady progress of Russian power and influence has enabled many explorers to traverse it in every direction, so that little remains to be done bevond makinjj a more exhaustive study of its structure and products. The work of exploration begim in 1856 bj^ Semyonov has been ably continued by YalOihanov, Golubev, Venj'idiov, Sieverzov, Eointhal, Mushketov, Prejvalsky, Regel, &c. Valuable itineraries remain still to be published, which will probablj' clear up many doubtful points, and help to remove the confusion occasioned 178 ASIATIC EUSSIA. by the various Tatar, Zungarian, Russian, and Chinese nomenchrtures. Great uncer- tainty also sometimes prevails regarding measurements, the various barometrical and other estimates of altitudes often presenting discrejjancies of several hundred feet. The Tian-shan proper begins about 120 miles east of the town of Hami (Khamil), and soon reaches an elevation of from 7,000 to 10,000 feet. The Kosheti-davan Pass, on the route between ITami and Barkid north and south, is no less than 9,100 feet high, an altitude probablj' maintained as far west as the Bogdo Mountains. But innncdiately beyond this point there occurs a profound gap Fig. 94. — Eastern Chains of the Tux-sh^in. .Scale 1 : 8,600,000. w Kouldj Kul(a Basin -^. ^a^Ji V g//^^ klO* C Pt '240 Miles. through which runs the road from Urunitsi (Umritsi) to Turf an and Pishau. All this section is encircled by a narrow belt of verdure, watered by streams flowing in j)arallel channels from the gorges, and soon losing themselves in the sands, or expanding into morasses on the lowlands. Around this green belt there stretch westwards two inlets of the old Asiatic Mediterranean, which have been gradually changed to gohU or deserts. The hills between Barkid and Hami, thus rising- like a headland above the wastes, have played a jjrominent jjart in the history of the world. Standing like a barrier between two great historical highways, they deflected the westward waves of migration, some to (lie Turim basin and Kashgaria, KATUX AND YULDUZ HIGHLANDS. 179 others through flic narrow Nomin-niingin-gobi gateway between the Barkul Hills and the advanced sjjui's of the Altai' north-westwards to Zungaria. Here the Mongolians were easily enabled to skirt on the north the whole Tian-shan system by availing themselves of the numerous passes opening westwards to the Hi basin, north-westwards to Lake Balkhash, north\\ards to the Black Irtish and Lake Zaisan. These depressions between MongoKa and JSibcria have a mean altitude of probably not more than 3,300 feet, and the highest point on the route from Barkul north- west to the Black Irtish is only 2,545 feet. The existence of an oblique chain, sup- jjosed by Eiehthofeu to rim north-west from Barkul to the Tarbagatai Mountains, has not been conlirmed by Potautin's explorations, though a small ridge rims from the extremity of the Tian-shan at Barkul in a north-westerly direction, again joining the main range west of the town. This is the outer rim of an ancient lake, of which nothing now remains excej^t the small Barkul basin, to which this town owes its Tatar name. Beyond the Barkid heights nothing occurs in the north- west as far as the valley of the Black Irtish, excejjt irregular masses representing the islands and peninsulas of the old sea flowing between the Altai and Tian-shan highlands. Katun and Yulduz Highlands. West of the Urumtsi defile and of the old Turfan inlet the main range rises above the snow-line, and takes the name of Katim, or Katin. This section, one of the least kno-\va in the system, is probably one of the highest, and undoubtedly exceeds 16,000 feet. No mention is made by the Chinese WTiters of any pass over it, and all the caravan routes skirt it east and west, while the lakes on both sides of the chain seem to jjoint at extensive snow-fields on the uplands. Eegel recently found vast glaciers about the som-ces of the Kash, which flows from the Katun highlands westwards to the Kunges and Hi. Here the Tian-shan system develops into several parallel ridges, while south of the Katun runs another chain through whose gorges the torrents from the main range escape to the plains. West of one of these gorges, traversed by an aftliieut of Lake Bogla-nor (Bostan-nor, or Bagrach-kul), the Tian-shan forms four parallel snowy ridges, known, like the neighbouring lake, by several different names, and enclosing two vast basins over 7,000 feet high. These so-called " stars " (Great and Little Yulduz) are the beds of old lakes, which aiow form uatiu-al pasture-lands watered by streams flowing to Lake Bogla-nor. It was in one of these vast cirques that Tamerlane, on his expe- dition against Kashgaria, assembled five armies from five different points of the Tian-shan, and ordered them to exterminate all the inhabitants of the land between Lakes Zaisan and Bogia-nor north and south. The imperial tent stood in the middle of the plain, and the " Destroyer of the Univer.se " ascended his golden throne ghttering with gems, and round about were the less sumptuous, but still gorgeous tents of his emirs. All received rich presents, and the troops were inflamed with rapture- These grazing grounds are the " Promised Land " of the nomad pastors, who here find the richest pastures for their flocks, and the finest climate, free even in summer from flies and mosqiutoes. Yet Prejvalsk}' found this 180 ASIATIC RUSSIA. magnificent region completely abandoned in 1876. Plundered iu 1865 hy the Moslem Zungarians, the 50,000 Yidduz nomads had been driven, some south-east- wards to Lake Bogla-nor, others north-westwards to the Hi valley. Left thus masters of the \vilderness, the wild ruminants have here become very numerous. Among them are the Ovis jwli in flocks of thirty to forty, the mountain goat (Capra Sibirica), the ninral, a species of deer.* But neither the Oeis karelini, the Oris poli, nor the argali is anj^svhere met in the Eastern Tian-shan. The wolf, fox, and other beasts of prey are also numerous in this section of the range, which is the exclusive home of the white-clawed bear ( Vrsus leticoni/x). According to their aspect, the mean direction of the winds, and amomit of rain- Fig. 95. — KOVTES OF ExPLOKEBS IX THE EaSTEKN TiAN-SHAN. Scale 1 : 9,670,000. -—- ►•"■^■' Prejv.ilsky, 1876. «— I — I—,—' Kuiopiilkin, 1S76-7. r. ...,1 ,. Rafailov, 1S74. C Perron .— - Sosnosky, 1874—9. Hegel, 1876-9. . — Great Chinese Highway . 120 Miles. fall, the slopes of the Eastern Tian-shan present many striking contrasts. The southern and generally more abrupt slopes, being imable to retain much moisture, are nearly all treeless, while the northern are well wooded, the pine flourishing in some places as high as 8,000 feet, the upper limit of arborescent vegetation. On the northern slopes of the Narat, or Nara-tau, running north of the Little Yulduz, * Sieverzov tells us that the young horns of the maral, -while still filled with blood and not yet hardened, are higldy esteemed by the Chinese, who pay from £6 to £20 the pair for them on the Siberian frontier. Hence the maral has always been eagerly chased ; and since the wild animal lias become rare, the Cossacks of the Kiakhta disti-ict have succeeded in domesticating it. Polakoff has recently stated that this industry has become widely diflfused in Western Siberia, where tame herds of fifty to seventy head are now to be met. Unfortunately the horns of the domesticated animal have lost many of the qualities for which they are chiefly valued as an article of trade. — Editor. KATUN AND YULDUZ HIGHLANDS. 181 I II I'l I |l|l| Vnl'llttllll l,lll I llll, nftjilLllfl If* hi il i|' If II ' ii 1 1 ii i'iii' ' , L)i V iii'i ir W'''|';!ii'ii:liii|! i' iiiiii'ii 1 1, 'i iiiii'ii'i'iii' iill'llii'i 'ill :ii III. to l!iiiii!ii{iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiil!ii!{|' iiiiiiiiiii. the forests on the banlvs of the Zanma consist ahnost exclusively of the " Tian-shan pine" and of a species of ash, -while the ajiple, apricot, and other fruit trees abound in the Kiuiges valley, and in most of the basins north of these mountains. 182 ASIATIC RirSSIA. Semirechixsk Region. After branching off towards tlic north-west from the main range the northern section of the Tian-shan takes successively various names, such as those of the Iren-khabirgan, Boro-khoro, and Talki. North of the Kidja phiin, separating it from the Tian-shan proper, it imites ^^•ith other parallel ridges in a hilly plateau furrowed by rmming waters, and forming a promontory above the plains and steppes of Semirechiusk, the " Country of the Seven Pavers." "Westwards this plateau ramifies into peninsidar chains continued by isolated masses, between which the streams flow to Lake Balkhash, or are lost in the desert. The principal of these masses, which still attain an elevation of over 8,000 feet, rises like a rocky wall between Semirechinsk and the Hi valley, but is crossed by several available passes. Like the main range, it runs south-west and north-cast, and this is also the direction of the Zungarian Ala-tau, which branches from the plateau at an acute angle with the Iren-khabirgan chain. This range, which is over 180 miles long, forms the natm-al frontier of the Russian and Chinese Empires, and is crossed only by two serviceable passes, those of Tentek and Lepsa. The system is con- tinued through Chinese territory eastwards to the Tarbagatai Mountains by the Barluk range, which is over G,000 feet high. The sj)ace between the Zungarian Ala-tau and the Tian-shan proj^er forms the Tian-shan-pelu plain, formerly a marine basin, which rises gradually westwards to the elongated plateau, whose northern and southern escarpments are formed by the Ala-tau and the Boro-khoro with the Tallci respectively. Lake Sa'iram, occupying a dejjression between wooded heights in this plateau, is scarcely 700 feet from the Talki Pass, and at the foot of a steep escarpment, formerly followed by the imperial route from Pekin to Kulja. The lake is slightly brackish, and is 150 square miles in extent, -with, an altitude, according to Ma-tveyev, of 6,000 feet. It is very dee23, and exposed to fierce storms, much di-eaded by the Mongolians, who call it the Seri-ob-nor, or " Great Water." One of the most majestic ranges in the whole Tian-shan system is the Nian- shan, or Temurlilv, rising abruptly above the Kulja plains over against the Boro- khoro escarpments. It is sharply defined east and west by the rivers Tekes and Kegen, flowing from the south. The Tekes valley communicates with the Issik-kul basin by the low Santash Pass, on which stands a huge saii-tas, or cairn, traditionally attributed to the army of Tamerlane. North of this pass the Kegen escapes from its upper valley through the most formidable gorge yet discovered La the Tian-shan. This cleft in the rocks has a depth of from 1,000 to 1,600 feet, between walls in many places rising vertically from the foaming stream. The Kegen is here joined by three other torrents, the three Merke, also rushing through profoimd canons of crj-stalline conglomerates. Through the greater part of the gorge the main stream, here known as the Aktogoi, and lower down as the Charin, falls from ledge to ledge in white masses of foam, while elsewhere its black waters are collected in deep and apparently motionless pools. From the bottom of this abyss the projecting rocks complctel)- shut out tht> hca\ens, and the explorer seems lost in the bowels of the earth. ALA-TAU HIGHLAXD. 183 The Cliarin, whicli is the largest afflueut of the IH, is accompanied on the west by another river, the Chilik, separated from it b}' the Jalanash phiteau, a lofty steppe said to be 4,000 feet high, and contrasting with the surroimding mountains in the total absence of trees and the general poverty of its faima and flora. Ala-tau Highland. The two parallel ranges rimuing north of the Issik-knl basin are both known by the somewhat common Tatar name of Ala-tau, or " Chequered Moimtains," that on the north being the Ala-tau beyond the Hi, the other the Ala-tau Kimgei. They really form but one granite ridge, intersected longitudinalh' by a limestone vaUey, Fig. 97.^The Aktogoi Defile. Scale 1 : SOn.OOO. e^ , -J \ ,-«l L^av .V E cFG 78° 30' 70 C Psr-rjO , 12 Miles. whence flow, on the one hand, the Chilik, on the other the Great Kebin, a main head-stream of the Chu. Thanks to the neighbom-hood of Yerniy, these highlands are amongst the best known in the whole Tian-shan system. Consisting chiefly of granites, with some metamorphous schists, limestones, and sandstones, the Northern Ala-tau is flanked towards the stejjj)© by low porjihyry hills strewn with erratic boidders from the main range. The remains of moraines are still visible in several vallej^s, and an enorraoiis glacier formerly fiulled all the uj^per cirques whence flows the Turgen. At present there is not a single glacier in either of the Ala-tau ranges, although rising towards the centre above the snow-line, which is here about 11,000 feet above sea-level. Here the pine flourishes between 5,800 and 8,600 feefe But the apple and other leafy trees have been mostly destroyed by the improvident Cossacks and other Russian settlers in this region. 184 ASIATIC EUSSIA. The two Ala-tau chains, -nhich have a total length of about 150 miles, are limited eastwards by the San-tash Pass and the Aktogo'i defile, westwards by the Biiam defile, which is traversed by the river Chu, and which sej^arates them abruptly from the Alexander Mountains. This gloomy gorge is stre\^-n with enormous blocks, between which rise fantastic porphj-ry pillars. But it lacks the savage grandeur of the Aktogoi gorge. Below the jimction of the Great Kebin the Chu crosses the western continuation of the Xorthern Ala-tau, after which it receives the Little Kebin at the head of a broad plain skirted by two detached branches of the Tian-shan, which merge gradually with the desert. The southernmost of these chains, another Ala-tau, now more usually kno\vn as the Alexander Moimtains, is a snow3' range running east and west over 180 miles, and cuhninating with the Hamish, or Mount Semyonov of the Russians. Lake Issik-kii. and "Westerx Tiax-shan Highlaxijs. The geographical centre of the whole Tian-shan sj'stem is the Great Issik-kul, or " Hot Lake," as it is called by the natives. It is encircled on all sides by mountains, on the north by the Ala-tau Kungei, on the south by the Ala-tau Terskei, the vast amphitheatre forming an oval tract of over 400 miles in circmnference. The Issik- kul is not only the largest lake in the Tian-shan highlands, but the only great survivor of the numerous reservoii-s that formerly filled the basins between the parallel ridges. But it was at one time far larger than at present, as shown by the water marks on the hULsides 200 feet above its actual level, and in the Biiam defile, 30 miles west of its present limits. Even in the ten years from 18G7 to 1877 it has fallen nearly 7 feet, implj-ing at least a temporary, if not a permanent, drying up of the land. The river Chu, which foimerly flowed to its western corner, now reaches it only through the sluggish and intermittent Kutemaldi, which is flooded only during the freshets and melting of the snows. According to a Kirghiz tradition the Kutemaldi was dug by the inhabitants of the country, anxious to get rid of the Issik-kul, but, owing to a miscalculation, they gave a new affluent instead of an outlet to the lake. Yet, although it has no present o\itflow, it is about ten times larger than Lake Geneva, its area being estimated at 2,300 square miles. It stands some 5,000 feet above sea-level, but never freezes, whence, according to Sieverzov, its name the " Hot Lake," though this title is more probably due to the numerous hot sjjrings round its shores. The lake is slightly brackish and teems with fish, of which, however, not more than four species have been discovered in its clear blue waters. In 1872 the first boat worthy of the name was launched on its surface ; yet its desert shores seem to have been formerly thicklj' peopled. Crania, bones, and various objects of himian industry are occasionally thrown iij) by the waves, and bits of iron and potsherds have been found by Koljjakovsky at a depth of 3 or 4 feet. East of Lake Issik-kul are groui^ed the Khan-tengri Moxmtains, which may be regarded as the dominant mass of the whole Tian-shan system. Although exceeded in height by the principal Trans- Alai peaks, the Khan-tengri contains the greatest LAKE ISSIK-KUL. 185 number of snowy crests, glaciers, and streams flowing to the four. points of the compass, and it is also crossed by the most frequented pass between the northern and southern slopes, and leading from Kulja to Eastern Turkestan. The Khan-tengri forms part of the southern chain, which begins south of the Great Yulduz basin, and runs under divers names thence westwards. To the Kok-teke succeeds the Geshili-hashi, bej'ond which follow the Shalik-tau and the Muz-art-tau, which last is crossed by the broad but dangerous Muz-art Pass, at a height, according to Regel, of about 11,600 feet. The passage is easier in winter than simimer, the crevasses being then filled with frozen snow, but although it has been crossed by Kaulbars, Kostenko, Dilke, Regel, and others, no European travelled has hitherto continued the journey southwards to Kashgaria. West of the Muz-art stretches a world of glaciers and lofty crests in a highland region, of which little is known beyond the fact that several of its glaciers, especially that at the source of the Sari-jassi, a tributary of the Tarim, are comparable in length to the Aletsch glacier in the Valais Alps. From the Muz-art-tau to the western extremity of the Sari-jassin-tau the snowy range maintains for over 60 miles a mean elevation of more than 16,500 feet. All the peaks overtoj) Mont Blanc by at least 3,000 feet, and southwards rises in solitary grandeur the Khan- tengri, or Kara-gol-bas. Beyond a chaos of peaks, whence flow the head-streams of the Tarim and Sir, the mountains i-esvmie their normal direction from east to west. They form with their jDarallel chains an enormous mass, no less than 210 miles broad north of Kashgar. The outer are far more elevated than the central ridges, between which flows the Narin, the chief affluent of the Sir. Although pierced at intervals by streams running south-eastwards to Kashgaria, the Kok-shaal, or southern range, maintains a mean altitude of over 15,000 feet, while several summits in the Kok- kiya section exceed 16,600 feet. These highlands, whose escarpments slope towards Chinese Turkestan, are amongst the least-known regions of the continent, although crossed towards their western extremitj- by the Turug-art, an easy pass well known to traders. It is a very barren region, with bare hiUs and scattered ridges, between which are the channels of dried-up rivers. The slope is very gentle even northwards to the Ak-sai plateau and the Chatir-kul. This lake, which is said to be destitute of fish, is all that remains of an extensive inland sea formerly flo^ving between the southern range and the jDarallel Kubergenti, Ak-bash, and Kara-koin chains on the north. Although it has no apparent outlet, its waters are still quite fresh. The hills skirting it northwards are crossed by the Tash-robat Pass, which, like the Turug-art, is open all the year romid to the caravans between Verniy and Kashgaria. West of the Turug-art the southern range attains a great elevation, and from a pass on a parallel chain north of it Osten-Sacken distinguished no less than sixty- three snowy peaks. It runs at first north-east and south-west, then turning west and north-west in a line with the extreme spurs of the northern chains, and intersecting the parallel ridges of the Central Tian-shan in such a way as to intercept their waters. But the innumerable lakes thus fonned have now rim dry, mainly through 18G ASIATIC RUSSIA. the defile by wliicli tlic Xarin escapes westwards. Here the Tian-shan system is completely limited by the Ferghana plains, but at the .south-west corner of the Tian-shan proper various offshoots run south-westwards, connecting the main range with the Alai and the Pamir. But till the beginning of the tertiary period a large marine strait still connected Ferghana and Kashgaria through the Kog-art, thus completely separating the Pamir from the Tian-shan plateau. The whole Tian-shan sj'stem was at that time crossed from north-east to south-west by a Fig. 98. — Westebn Chaixs of the Ti.ix-SH.iX. Scale 1 : 9,000,000. 40' /. Sa/MtisA L oFG Tachi 3Q Miles. the Khahnr-assu, the most frecpiented and historically the most important of all the passes. It runs east of the Tas-tau, and has always been imieh used by the Kashgar traders proceeding to the Troitzk, Orenburg, and Irbit fairs, and by the Tatars and Russians making their way southwards from the 8iberiau lowlands. Factories of Bukhariot merchants were formerly established at Tumen, Tobolsk, Tara, and Tomsk, and a colony of 300 Mohammedans near Tomsk still recalls these commercial relations. But the progress of this country was arrested in 1745 by the vexatious measures of the Russian (Tovenniient, which established frontier custom-houses, prohibited the trade in rlmbarb under pain of death, and finally put a stop to all passenger tiaflfic Tint trade has since somewhat re'vaved, and a rich Kirghiz has built a caravanserai on the pass for the convenience of the LAKES BALKH;6B '73? ;'i ■ , ,. ^- JrP-^$ :V^^^-^ . _ > yv^>*-^. 1^ A- i> M'^ A# 1^ [ - ■ \ »■ 7/ IC a i .-1 a'~ \>» 1 7.S t . llr^iivn bvA.Slom. Heiglit aijove Sea Level I 10n0to3iV0ft 3300to6eo0n Ih-erSeoOf! Scu.l. LONDON. J.S.V Hand ISSIK-KU L. >00,000. Pepth of Lakes lOOEJffiles liiderie/> IS to SO n Overboet- lE & C9 LIliITE,D. LAKE BALKHASH. ' 191 Sarte mercliants, wlio serve as agents for tlie exchanges between Russia and China.* The Paiuir and Tian-shan have both an inhiud drainage eastwards to the Tarim, westwards to the Aralo-Caspian basin. The Tarbagatai alone sends eastwards a few streams to the Irtish, thus belonging partly to the Arctic basin. With this single exception all the Turkestan highlands are comprised in the Central Asiatic inland water systems. Most of their streams flow naturally from the convex side of the vast crescent of plateaux and mountains facing the moist west winds. Hence the largest rivers flow to the Tiu'kestan and Semirechensk plains, and here also are the largest lakes, some of which are vast enough to deserve the name of seas. Nevertheless this hydi-ographic system is far less important even than that of East Russia, where the Caspian is fed by the Volga, whereas here the Sir and Oxus are lost in the Aral, and the Hi in Lake Balkhash. Lake Balkhash But the o'coloffical structure of the land shows that it was formerly far more abuudautl}' watered. Apart from the seas of the tertiary epoch, it is certain that even recentlj^ the Balkhash stretched 240 miles farther east and south-east to the depression of the plateau now partly filled by the Ebi-nor, and that towards the west it was four times broader than at present. At that time the Zungarian Ala- tau projected like a promontory in the middle of a continuous sea, now divided into a number of distinct lakes and morasses. The regions formerly under water are indicated by their argillaceous soil, saline wastes, and shifting sands. Even within the historic period the Balkhash formed a single sheet of water wath the 8assik-kul, Ala kid, and Jalana.sh-kul. In the seventeenth century it is said to have filled all the ca\ity separating it from the Aral, according to one authoritj' sending two affluents to this basin. But this statement is highly improbable, for certain sjiecies of its fauna imply a long period of isolation. The Balkhash has still a very large area. The Chinese knew it as the Si-hai, or " Western Sea," though this name has also been applied to the Aral and the Casj)ian. The neighbouring Kirghiz tribes call it either the Denghiz, or " sea " simply, as if there were no other, or the Ak-denghiz or Ala-denghiz, the " WTiite Sea," or " Motley Sea," probably on accoimt of the islands by which its surface is diversified. Third in size of the land-locked basins of the contLuent, it has an estimated mean area of about 8,700 square miles. But no very exact measure- ment can be taken of a lake without A^ell-deflned contoiu's or soKd banks, whose southern shores especially shift with the shifting north and south -N^inds. Its limits * Chief elevations of the Tarbagatai : — Feet. Feet. Barluk Mountains, mean height . 4,660 Alet Pass .... 6,000 Jairsty Pass 6,036 Tarbagatai, mean height 6,000 Muz-tau (Sailrvi) . 11,330 ,, snow-line*. 9,200 Manrak, highest peaks 6,000 Saiii-u, snow-line . 10,956 Chagan-obo Pass 4,755 Denghiz-tau, mean height . 4,non Khahar-as'^ii ,, 9,570 Arkat 2,560 Tas-tau 9,860 O 2 192 ASIATIC EUSSIA. are lost in one place in extensive marshes and flats, in another in forests of reeds from 12 to IG feet high, the haimt of the wild boar and of myriads of water-fowl. But the northern shores, formed b}' the escarpments of a plateau rising in two terraces above the water, are more sharply defined, and are even varied by a few rocky headlands. Here the lake is deep, but elsewhere it is so shallow as to pre- sent the ajjpearance rather of a vast flooded morass. The depth nowhere exceeds 70 feet, and as the average seems to be about 30 feet, its volume may be estimated at some 200,000,000 of cubic yards, or twice that of Lake Geneva, which is never- theless thirty-six times less extensive in superficial area. Its water, which is usually ice-boimd from the end of November to the beginning of April, is clear, and abounds in fish, but is so salt, especially in its southern division, that it proves fatal to animals driven by thirst to di'ink it. Of the other reservoirs in this lacus- trine region the Ala-kid is the most saline, while the Sassik-kul is scarcely brackish. The contrast presented by the two shores of the Balkhash is chiefly due to the relative amoimt of running water discharged into each. Along the whole northern coast, which, even excluding the thousand little inlets, is about 420 miles long, the lake does not receive a single permanent stream. The Tokrvm nms completely dry after periods of long drought, and the same is the case with the steppe " wadies " of the southern shore. But the Zungarian and Trans-Ilian Ala-tau also di-aiii to these plains, and the streams sent down by them are sufiiciently copious to reach the lake with their alluvia. The vast semicircle of low tracts formed by these deposits is a striking witness to the influence these waters have had in modifying the geological aspect of the land. At no distant future the sand and soil brought down cannot fail to divide the Balkhash into separate basins, such as those of the lacus- trine Ala-kul group. Semirechinsk Ei\ee System — The III The IK, chief afiluent of the Balkhash, is a large river, at least as regards its course, which is no less than 900 miles long. Formed by the jimction of the Tekes and Kunges, it receives through the first the icy waters of the Muz-art and of a large portion of the Central Tian-shan, while the Kunges brings it the torrents from the Narat and other chains of the Eastern Tian-shan. In the Xulja plain the Hi flows in a rapid stream in a bed 200 to 400 yards wide, and from 3 to 20 feet deep, skirted northwards by a high cliff, which is formed by the coimterforts of the Altin-imel chain. It is navigable for small boats for over half its course, and Iliisk, where it is deflected north-westwards by the outer Tian-shan ridges, is reached during the floods by larger craft from the lake. At a defile marking the limit of its middle and lower course certain Buddhist figm-es and Tibetan inscrip- tions on the porphyry rocks seem to indicate that the empire of the Duugans foi-merly stopped at this point. Farther down, the stream, already reduced by evaporation, enters its delta, which during the floods covers a triangular space of over 5,000 square miles, although at other times the southern branch alone is filled. Of the other feeders of the Ballchash none are navigable for any considerable portion of the year, and several are even cut off from the lake by strips of sand THE AEALO-CASPIAN HYDEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM. 193 for several months togetlier. The Karu-tal, fed by the suows of the Zungarian Ala-tau, is one of the " seven rivers," whence the region comprised between that range and the Balkhash takes the name of Semirechinskiy Krai, though the terms Country of the Three, Ten, or Twenty Rivers might be just as aiJiDrojjriate according to the number of streams taken into account. The seven more important are the Kara-tal and its tributary the Kok-su, the Biyen, Ak-su and Sarkan, Baskan and Lcpsa. The Hi is sometimes added to the number, because the administrative province of Seniirechinsk also comprises that basin. The Kara-tal, the longest, though not the most copious, of the seven streams, seems to have been formerly - largely utilised for irrigating purposes. The Lepsa, which is the largest in volume of the Ala-tau rivers, unites ■ndth the Ak-su at its mouth, and forms a vast delta of shifting channels. Its swamps are the most northern haunts of the tiger. The Aya-guz, sometimes included in the nmnbor of the " seven rivers," flows from the Tarbagatai to the eastern extremity of the lake, to which it carries do^vn some gold dust. Its now desert banks are strewn with the ruins of ancient Buddhist cities. Lakes Sassik-kul and Ala-kid are also fed by streams from the Ala-tau, though the largest affluent of this double basin is the Churtu, Emil, or Imil, flowing west- wards from the Tarbagatai. Notwithstanding the general tendency to subsidence, these streams occasionally produce the opposite phenomenon in the Ala-kid, whose level, according to the Kirghiz, steadily rose from the year 1850 to 18G2. The districts formerly imder water are usually the most sterile, owing to the sands and hard clays mixed with saline particles of which they largely consist. The lakes have thus become deserts, and vegetation has ceased along the shores of the old lacustrine basin. West of the Balkhash the contours of a dried-ujD sea, ecpial in extent to that lake, may still be traced north of the Western Tian-shan from the Alexander Mountains to the advanced spurs of the Kara-tau. This basin is now replaced by the sands and clays of the Mu^n^n-klun, or Ak-kum stej)pe. v.— THE AEALO-CASPIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SYSTEM. The Sir and Oxus, the Aral Sea and Trans-Caspian District. The wilderness of lakes, swamps, and streams, which run dr}' in summer, and which are partly avoided even by the nomads, forms, at the foot of the wooded Tian-shan slopes, the approach to the vast region of lowland stejjpes stretching thence across the whole of Turkestan, and beyond the river L^ral into the heart of Russia. These ste^ji^es j)resent almost everj'where the appearance of boundless and perfectly level arid tracts, though most of them are really rolling lands undidating as regularlj' as a tropical sea under the influence of the trade winds. But the very imiformity of these waves tends to conceal the intervening troughs, and the traveller is often startled by the sudden disapjjearance of horsemen, and even of whole caravans, in these depressions. The absence of any landmarks, trees, or buildings which might serve as points of comparison, prevents the cj"e from forming any estimate of the heights and hollows, while the refraction of the 104 ASLiTIC RUSSIA. lumiuoiis rays iu the morumg siui teucls to magnify the size of evciv couspicuous object, nilloek.s scaicely 200 feet high appear like imjjosiiig eiuiueneeK, an eagle on the wHug revive.s our reminiscences of the fabulous roc, tufts of herbage assume the proportions of forest trees. AVith the rising sun the heated and mostly cloudless atmosphere quiver^ incessantly like the blasts of a furnace, imparting to ever\'thing a waving and shifting form, and when the sky is overcast the dense clouds of burning sands envelop all objects in a ruddy glamour. The monotonous appearance of the steppes is intensified in winter, when the broken surface is smoothed over by the snows. But their diverse aspects are revealed in the early spring, when the swollen streams and meres have assumed their normal level, and the nomads have fired the dry brushwood of the pastures. Now the young plants spring up rapidly, and the arid surface of the land is clothed as by enchantment with verdure and prairie flowers. The variety is enhanced by the varjnng tints of sands, clays, rocks, sweet and saline waters, and the different character of the soil is clearly reflected in its diversified fauna and flora. But this springtide splendour and wealth of coloiu- soon disappear. The extremes of temperatm-e, sultry in the hot season, and Arctic in the cold, allow- but a few species of jilants to flourish, and even these are presently burnt up by the scorching stms. Many grey and dustj' tracts then resmne their monotonous aspect, again broken only by a brief re\-ival of vegetation during the few rainy days of autimm. But this promised return of spring is soon arrested by the keen winter blasts, nipping the tender herbage and muffling all nature in a snowy mantle. The absence of running waters and the dryness of the atmosphere tend to increase the miiformity imparted to the land b}^ the boundless extent of the plains. The desert begins within 1 or 2 miles of the river banks, stretching thence beyond the horizon in a dreary succession of moving sands, reedy tracts, saline moors or muddj^ swamps, treacherous quagmires in winter, baked hard as the rock in summer. Yet with endless labour and a carefid system of irrigation the Kirghiz contrives to bring a few strips of land imder cultivation. By a system of low embankments the land is parcelled into a nimaber of square plots like those of marine salines, and when these are flooded they are successively draiticd off by openings in the parting- dykes. The method of cultivation somewhat resembles that practised in Egypt. The Turkestan Desekts. The deserts properly so called occupy probably about half of the whole Turkestan steppe between the Ob basin and the Iranian plateau. In the north the region limited by the lower course of the Chu and Sari-su is usually known to the natives as the Bek-pak-dala, and to the Russians as the Golodnaj-a steppe, or "Hxmger Steppe." South of the Chu stretches the Ak-kmn ("WTiite Sands"), while a large portion of the country, limited by the Sir and Oxus north and south, is occupied b}' the Kizil-kum, or " Red Sands." Between the Sir and Ui-al Rivers are the Kara-kuni, or " Black Sands," but another and far more extensive region of "Black Sands" occupies most of the triangidar sjiaee bordered north-west by iiaiaiiisraL iJ 1 2_£i!ilh™ii!l'ii!H FLORA AND FAUNA OF TURKESTAN. 135 the Uzboi valloy, north-east by the < ).\iis, south by the oases stretching along the foot of the Iraniim plateau. iSeveral other s-iuallcr sandy wastes are scattered over the rest of Turkestan. Of these desert regions, which, notwithstanding their different names, are all alike of a greyish colour, few are more dreaded by the Kirghiz than the Bek-pak- dala, whose limestone or argillaceous bed is here and there crossed b}^ barh-ham, or sandy dimes. It is traversed by the road from Tashkend to Akmolinsk, but the absence of water and fodder obliges the caravans to make long detours. Here the summer temperature rises in the shade of the tent to 97° Fahr., and in the open to 111° and 112°. Even in the cool of the evening the soles of the wayfarer's feet become scorched, and the dog accomjpanyiug hun finds no repose till he has burrowed below the burning surface. Some of the southern deserts are still more terrible. During the early expeditions against the Tekke Turkomans himdreds were killed by the heat of the sands, while the mortality of those nioimted on camels was still greater. The " Black Sands " north of the Aral are more easily accessible, thanks to the parallel depressions rimning north-west and south-east between lines of dunes 25 to 30 feet high. These dejDressions are covered with a fine herbage, and even with a few jjlants, such as the sand osier and the wild olive. They were formerly cultivated, as ajjpears from the still visible traces of irrigating canals. The dunes themselves have a flora, consisting of plants whose roots penetrate deeply into the soil in search of moisture. Springs of pure water, sujjplied by the infiltration of snow and rain, occur here and there at their feet. In some places frozen masses have even been discovered beneath the accumulated sands, by which they were preserved for years from the summer heats. Many of the argillaceous and salt-strewn stejipes are dreaded even far more than the sandy wastes. Here are the most dangerous quagmires, where the camels sink in the mud after the slightest shower. Here also the caravans suffer most from thirst, and although the stages are marked by weUs, it often happens that the water has been poisoned by the carcasses of animals. The wells are usually sunk about 12, but occasionally to a depth of 40 feet. Flora and Fauna of Turkestan. The feeble Aralo-Casplan flora is limited chiefly to shrubs an., thorny plants, the soil being neither rich nor moist enough to develoj) a forest vegetation. True forests occur only in the north- western tracts watered by the Ural and Eraba. The Russians everywhere fell the trees impro\'idently, while the Kirghiz are never at their ease till they have cleared the land of its timber. But both races alike wiU resjject and regard with a sort of veneration the few solitary trees occurring at intervals in the desert. The branches are often covered with ribbons, horsehair, medals, and other votive offerings, and in passing every devout Kirghiz will piously mutter the name of Allah. While in some respects resembling those of Russia, the Orenburg steppes have a far less varied flora. As we proceed eastwards and southwards in Tiu'kestan the ]9C ASIATIC RUSSIA. vegetation everywlicre becomes poorer, until we reach the foot of the mountains, where another zone begins. In the whole of this region no more than 1,152 species of phanerogamic plants have been discovered, and in the oj)on steppe far fi-oni the rivers the flora is reduced to a few tyi^cal species, "brown as the camel's hair," covering hmidrcds and thousands of square miles. In certain tracts nothing is met except a mugwort of a blackish colour ; in others the soil is covered with a blood- red alkaline vegetation. In the sj)ace comprised between the Aral and Caspian east and west, and stretching from the Emba to the Atrek north and south, there are only 329 species altogether, less than are found in the smallest French canton. The Turkestan flora, such as it is, is geologically of recent origin. The si^ecies have all advanced from the surrouudiug regions according as the waters subsided. Fisr. 101. — Vegetation of the Kizil-kum. But in the struggle for the possession of the land the southern have prevailed over the northern species. Thus the s(il,-sati/ (^Anabasis aiiunodciidron) and the Jidn, or wild olive, are constantly advancing from Persia, and driving the poj)lars back to their northern homes. It is interesting to observe how aU these plants adapt themselves to the changed conditions of soil and climate in the steppe. To resist the wind they acquire a more pliant stem, or present a smaller surface to its fury bj- dropping their foliage. To diminish the evaporation their bark becomes a veritable carapace, and their pith is mingled with saline substances. Thej' clothe themselves with hairs and tliorns, distilling gums and oils, whereby the FLOrxA AND FAUNA OP TUEKESTAX. 197 evaporation is stQl further reduced. Thus are able to flourish far from running waters such phuits as the saksaul, which, though jjerfectly leafless, produces both flowers and fruits. So close is its grain that it sinks in water, and emits sparks when struck with the axe. The grass)^ steppes are not covered imifonnly with herbage, as in the western praii'ies, but produce isolated tufts occupj-ing scarcely a third of the whole surface. The short jjeriod of growth and bloom is utilised by the jjlants -n-ith remarkable energj-. ^^'ith the first warm daj-s of spring the Orenburg steppes become covered with tulips, mingled here and there "with, the lily Fig. 102. — Kaxge of Vegetation in Turkestan. Scale 1 : 15,000,000. ^ ra Grassy Steppe. AririllTCeous iJeserts. Saline Desei-ts. Sands. Znrnfshan Floi-a. 300 MUes. Khivan Oasis. Forests. and iris. But in a few weeks the land has resumed its wonted didl grey aspect ; the plants have withered and been scattered by the winds. Like its flora, tlie Turkestan fauna presents a singiJar uuiforinit^'of t}'pes through- out vast spaces. But thanks to the variety of relief between the steppe and the mountains, the species are relative^ more numerous. In the Aralo-Caspian basin aloue Sieverzov reckons forty-seven species of mammalia and ninety-seA'en of birds, while all the crevasses in the ground are alive wilh snakes, lizards, and scorpions. The thickets skirting the rivers harboiu* most of the ipiadrupcds — tiger, ounce, 108 ASIATIC EUSSIA. wild cat, wolf, fox, wild boar; but on the open plain notiiiui^ lives except p^regarioiis aiiimuls, such ais tlic <>azellc and wild ass, wliicli are able rapidly to traverse great distances in search of food and moisture. The domestic animals are limited hy the n;itui-e of the climate to the camel, horse, ass, and sheep. The only settled parts of the land consist of narrow oases constantly threatened by the sands, and often wasted by the locust. Eut the whole country is inhabited or at least traversed, by the nomads Fig. 103. — Petrov Glacier. Scale 1 : 216,000. L or G 78°IS 76 J5 C. P^r ron shifting theii' camping grounds with the seasons, and tending their flocks now in the open plain, now at the foot of hills and in the neighbourhood of streams and wells. Water Sy.stem — The Sir. The Aralo- Caspian basin is studded with lacustrine spaces, remnants of the old inland sea of Turkestan. Niunerous funnel- shajDed cavities also occur, especially north and north-east of the Aral, many from 80 to 100 feet deep, and filled mostly with salt or brackish water, while marine shells are embedded in the claj-s and sands of their sides. Saline marshes, strewn over the stepj)e side by side with the fresh-water lakes and tarns, also contain thick layers formed by the remains of marine organisms. These shells of the cardimii, nnjfilu.^, fuvrifclla, and others still common in the Aral, seem to prove that this sea formerly reached nearlj' to the present water-j^arting between the Ob and Aralo-Caspian basins. This is a strong argument in favour of the theory that the Caspian itself was at one lune connected by a marine inlet with the Arctic Ocean. Of the former influents of the Aral, the Sir and Oxus alone now reach its shores. The Sir, or Yaxartes of the ancients, and the Shash, or Sihim of the Arabs, ri.ses in the heart of the Tian-shan. One of its head-streams flows from a lake in the Ala-tau Terskei on the Barskaun Pass ; another drains the marshes of the Zanka Pass. But the most copious toi'ient escapes from the Petrov glacier, whose crj'stal- liiie mass, some 9 miles long, and scored by five moraines, fills a crevasse of astonishing regidarity in the Ak-shiirak Hills. Another glacier of smaller proper- WATEE SYSTiat—TKE SIE. 199 tious, the lir-tawli, is remarkable for tlie shape of its basiu, the entrance of \\hich is lihicked by rocks. lu its upper com-se the 8ir changCvS its name with every fresh triluitary. On leaving the Petrov glacier it is the Yak-tash, then the Taragai to the junction of the Karasai, and after receiving the Karakol it becomes the Great Narin. Eelow the double confluence of the Ulan and Kurmekti the Narin enters the Kapchegai defile, which no explorer has yet succeeded in penetrating to siu-vcj' the falls, which must here be very fine, for the river descends, in this space of about 46 miles, altogether from 3,000 to 3,220 feet. United with the Little Narin, the Fig. 104.— Low£r Pakt of the Iik-tash Glacier, n • 1 ii 1 Scale 1 ; 13,000. stream flows successively through several of those ancient lacustrme beds which are so common in the "Western Tian-shan, and then passes through two other romantic gorges before emerging from the highlands on to the Ferghana plains. South of the town of Namangan it receives the muddy Kara-daria, at whose con- fluence it at last takes the name of Sir. But no sooner does it acquire majestic jjroportions than it begins to be impoverished. Notwithstand- ing' the tributaries still flowins: to it from the moimtains skirting it on the north, its volume is continuously diiuinished in the Ferghana plain and lower down. In the vast amphi- theatre of plateaux and hills en- closing Ferghana its afiluents are mostly absorbed in a system of irri- gation works, which has converted a large portion of the plain into a blooming garden. The triangular space comprised between the Sir and the Kara-daria is the mo.st fertile tract in all Turkestan. But most of the streams arc absorbed in irrigation works before reaching the banks of the Sir. The climate of Ferghana, though severe, is subject to less extremes of heat and cold than the more exposed lowland stejDpes. Here the pre- vailing colour is blue. " Everything," saj's M. de Ujfalv}% "assmnes a tm-quoise hue — sky, rocks, the pkmiage of raven and blackbird, and even the walls of the buildings." Above Khojend the Sir escapes from the old Ferghana lake bj' skirting the Choktal ^Mountains, thence pursuing a north-westerl}- com-se parallel with the Oxus and the Kara-tau range. It seems to flow farther north than formerly, and at one .Perron C60 Feet. 200 ASIATIC EUSSIA. time probaUj' traversed the Tus-kane morass, which forms a curve of over 120 miles north of the Nura-tau Mountains, and which presents the appearance of a river hed. It seems to have then effected a junction with the Oxus, near the Sheik- jeili eminence, where traces still remain of an old channel. Like the Chu, its lower course at present describes a wide circuit round the basin of an ancient sea, for the Kizil-kum, no less than the Ak-kum and the Kara-kum, is a di-ied-up sea-hed, formerly united in a single sheet of water with the Aral. The Chu, which is the main stream of the Terskei xUa-tau and ^ycxandcr range, no longer reaches the lower course of the Sir. Although verj' copious in its upper reaches, it receives no permanent affluents below Karagati, where it branches off into several channels, which gradually run dry in the sands. The Talas also, which escapes from the Tian-shan through the Auli-ata defile, expands into extensive morasses before reachius the Chu. But below both of these rivers fresh water is foimd at a depth of from 4 to 6 feet, showing that their streams still filter through under- ground. West of the Chu the Sari-su, kno^vn in its upper course as the Yaman-su, and in its lower as the Yan-su, was also at one time a tributary' of the Sir, but is now lost in the stejjije sands after a course of over 480 miles. It rises north of Lake Balkhash, on a plateau forming the water-parting between the Ob basin and the region of inland drainage. Several other rivers rising in the same district become exhausted before reaching the Sir or the Aral Sea. Amongst them are a number of Kara-su, or " Black "Waters," flowing through peat beds, and noted amongst all the Tm-kestan streams for their resistance to the action of frost, apparently never freezing in winter. Throughout its lower course the Sit has frequently shifted its channel even in recent times. Sidtan Baber, who flourished earh' in the sixteenth century, teUs us that the Sihim (Sir) at that time ran dry in the sands before reaching any other body of -natcr. At present the Yaui, or Jani-daria, branches off fi'om the main stream about 7 miles below Fort Perovsky, and disappears intermittently with the natural changes of the principal current and the irrigation works of the Kirghiz. After ceasing to flow from 1820 to 1848 it resmned its south-westerly course in the latter j'ear, without, however, reaching either the Oxus or the Aral, and at present it is lost in Lake Kiicha-denghiz after a course of some 180 miles. But below this basin there is abundant evidence that it formerly flowed to Lakes Kungrad and Dau-kara in the Oxus delta. On the otlier hand, the present relief of the land is altogether opposed to the statement of old writers that at one time the Sir even reached the Caspian. At least, it can have done so only through the Yani-daria and the Oxus. The main channel of the Sir at present ramifies again a little below the Yani- daria outlet into two streams, both of which have chaneed their com-se and volume. The southern branch was formerly the more copious, but it has gradually fallen off to such an extent that it is now known as the Jaman-daria, or "Bad Paver," mostly evaporating in the swamps. The Kara-uzak, or northern branch, at first a mere irrigation canal, now carries the main stream north-west to the north-east end of the Aral. The average amount of water discharged into this sea is at present estimated at no more than one-half of its whole volume above the triple ramification at the head of the delta. Here the discharge at lo^^• water seems to be about THE OXUS EIVEE SYSTEM. 201 31,000 cubic feet per second, and the mean about 90,000 cubic feet. But farther down a vast amount is lost by evaporation in the channels, false rivers, and extensive marshes of the delta. This is the paradise of hmiters, abounding in wolves, deer, the wild boar, fox, hare, wild goat, badger, besides the pheasant, heron, ibis, crane, goose, duck, and a species of flamingo. But the tiger seems to have disappeared since the middle of the present centm-y. The navigation of the Lower Sir is at once imcertain and dangerous. The Russian flotilla is seldom able to cross the bar, which at times has scarcely 3 feet of water. The steamers often run aground on the sand-banks, the stream is blocked by ice for four months in winter, and infested by dense clouds of midges in summer, while the rapid cui'rent and the want of fuel increase the obstacles opposed to a regular Fig. 105.— The Sir Delta. Scale 1 : 712,000. C Perron to 16 Feet. 16 Feet and upw-irds. 12 Miles. system of navigation. The attempts hitherto made have been in the interests of war and conquest rather than of trade, and in the actual conditions the waters of the Sir are much more capable of being utilised for irrigation than for any other purpose. By a well-devised system vast tracts might be reclaimed from the desert, and it is certain that the cidtivated land was formerly far more extensive than at present. A network of canalisation has already been projected, which, if carried out, wiU draw off over 2,000 cubic feet per second in order to water about 250,000 acres of waste lands. The Oxus Eiver Sy.stem. The western slope of the Pamir drains entirely to the Amu-daria, or Oxus, whose head-streams thus occupy a si^ace over 180 miles broad between the Ilindu-Kush and the Alai south and north. From this region come all the suppKes of the main 202 ASIATIC EUSSIA. stream, which for over one-half of a course estimated altogether at about 1,;jOO miles does not receive a single tributary. The chief source of this famous river, known to the Arabs as the Jihun, still remains to be determined. The relative size of its Pamir head-streams has not yet been ascertained. When "Wood vi.sitcd Lake Victoria (Sari-kul) in 1838, he had no doubt that he had discovered the long-sought source of the Oxus ; but it now seems more probable that the chief bianch is the Ak-su, or " White River " of the Kiro-hiz, which rises east of the Great I'amir and of Lake Victoria. This Ak-su may possibly be the Vak-shu of Sanscrit writers, which name may have been changed to Oxsos (Oxus) by the Greeks. If so, this plateau must have been frequented by Kirghiz or other Tiirki nomad.s long before the time of Alexander, for the name of the river has no meaning except in their language. Southernmost of the LTpper Oxus head-streams is the Sarhad, a river of the Little Pamir, first scientifically explored by the Mirza Suja, in the service of the Indian Government. It rises in the same depression as the Ak-su, but flows in the opposite direction south-westwards to the main stream at Langar-kisht. The Ak-su itself, known in a j)ortion of its course as the Murgh-ab, rises in Lake Gaz-kid, or Oi-kul, \\hich often disappears under the avalanches of snow from the Ak-tash and neighbouring hills. Flo^^'ing from this lake, first eastwards, as if to the Taiini basin, the Ak-su soon trends northwards, and after receiving a tributary from Mount Tagharma takes a westerly course, joining the Southern Oxus after it has traversed the Wakhan, Badakshan, Shignan, and Roshan highlands. Farther down the united streanns are joined by their last great affluent, the Surgh-ab, flowing from the Trans-Alai and Karateghin Mountains. Beyond this point the Oxus, escaping from the gorges of the advanced Pamir plateaux, receives no more contributions from the south, and very little on its right bank. Even the Zarafshan is exhausted before reaching the Oxus. It rises at the foot of the Zarafshan glacier, on the slopes of the Alai'-tagh, which, according to Mishen- kov, is 30 miles long. From every snowy cirque of the surrounding moimtaius the Zarafshan receives nimierous torrents, besides a considerable tributaiy which Hows at an elevation of 7,350 feet through the romantic Lake Iskander, so named in memory of Alexander the Great. This fresh-water basin, which is encircled by hills over 3,000 feet high, has a present depth of 200 feet, but the water-marks on the surrounding slopes show that its former level was over 300 feet higher. After entering the Samarkand plain the Zarafshan, whose Persian name means the " Gold Distributor," in reference either to its auriferous sands, or more probably to the fertilising properties of its waters, is divided into coinitless irrigation rivulets, watering over 1,200,000 acres of arable land. Within 60 miles of the Oxus it is completely exhausted, though the extent to which its natural and artificial channels are flooded varies considerably with the amount of .snow and rain, and even with the vicissitudes of peace and war, by which agricultural operations are so largely affected. South of the Oxus amitlier large I'ivcr, the Murgh-ab of Merv, also nms dry long before reaching the main stream, of which it was fonnorlv an afHnont, but from LIBRARY THE OXUS RIVER SYSTEM. 203 lillt^'\-W!«»«¥r''^ CO which it i.s now separated by a desert. Rising iu the GarjistauMoimtains, Afghau- istan, the Murgh-ab receiyes all the streams from the northern slopes of the Herat highlands, after «-hieh it branches off into numerous channels in the plain, 204 ASIATIC RUSSIA. ultimately losing itself in the sands beyond tlio Merv oasis. To the same basin also belongs the Heri-rud, or river of Herat, which pierces the border range of the Iranian plateau, but rmis dry before reaching the Murgh-ab. The sands blown about by the winds north of the irrigation deltas of these two rivers have so completely effaced the ancient beds that it is no longer possible to tell in which direction they ran. Judging from the general tilt of the land towards the north- west, parallel with the Gulistan and Tiu-kmenian Mountains, they would seem to have flowed not to the jireseut Oxus, but to the western branch, which at one time reached the Caspian. The lines of wells across the desert follow the same direction. Throughout its lower course below Balkh the Amu follows a normal north- westerly course. At Kilip, where the Russians have commenced its regular embankment, its bod is narrowed to about 1,000 feet by the last advancing spurs of the Hissar Mountains. Bvit in the plains it broadens to an average width of over 2,300 feet, with a depth of 20 feet, and a velocity in the flood of from 5,500 to 11,000 yards per hour. In some places it is considerably over a mile wide even at low water ; but here it is studded with low islands overgrown with willows and tall grasses. Its banks, eaten away by the ciuTent, are nearly everywhere steep, and before reaching the cultivated districts it even passes a belt of fossiliferous chalk rocks, pierced by a gorge 1,100 feet wide at Toyu-bojrin. The current presses generally on the right bank, as is the case with the Volga and Siberian rivers, all being alike affected by the lateral movement j)roduced by the rotation of the earth. The Amu brings down a considerable quantity of alluvia, causing its waters to be usually of a muddy yellow colour, though not de^Driving them of their pleasant taste. Like the Nile, it has its regular risings, caused by the melting of the snow, and lasting from May to October. Dm-ing the cold season it is at times completely ice-boimd, and may then be crossed by the caravans proceeding from Merv to Bokhara. Since 1874 regular measurements have been taken of its discharge, which at Pitniak, just below Toyu-boyin, is estimated at 125,000 cubic feet per second. For its total area of drainage, amounting without the Zarafshan and Murgh-ab to about 120,000 square miles, this would represent an annual rainfall of about 12 inches per square mile in excess of the quantity lost bj' evaporation, an excess mainly due to the abundant snows of the Pamir. The actual discharge is exceeded in Europe only by the Volga and Danube, and while only one-half that of the Shat-el-Arab (Euj)hrates and Tigris), it nearly equals that of the Nile. During exceptional floods, such as that of 1878, it even siu'passes the mean of the Mississippi. At Nukus, where it ramifies into several branches to reach the Aral, it has already lost half the volume discharged at Tojoi-boyin, a loss due mainly to the amount diverted from its left bank to water the oasis of Khiva. During the irrigating season, from the middle of April to the end of July, the cultivated lauds of Kharezm, estimated at about 4,250 square miles, absorb some 250 billion cubic feet of water, or one-seventh of the entire annual discharge, while the sedimentary deposits are estimated at 16,GG0,000 tons, a quantity sufficient to raise the level of THE DELTA 01 E.ofr. |o6' 57° 1 ■ ■"" -- / ; "^ ^ /C ^'^ss / ^^"^"-^^ ;^ 'M '^n^^^ § / .^•" X: -r^ *^ j^ y o jr^ "^ \4 ;^ H I — -- — Tx^ "^ ^ - ^H .-"^ ,...• "'"'^'^^^^K \ ^^""^-^---^a h "^^^ 5^^'----- ^ / \ .^^^^^^^^^ \^ xj^ ^ >5^^i^3 ,3-^^l^^-— ' //^ ^^^i^,\^ ^>-E-r:-^^ ■. .\ 43' / / fi^^^.^^ B.iisa - "^fell^^^^i^ > ^ fes^' y^ j*> y^^^^M^-.,' -^ i^V^W ^^m^P^km ^ t \^^ S .-< v^ ^ b \^Vr-r5^^^_---^»^ ^•■" ]L'/f ■' / ^^^"i^^^^^c: "" 1iUiodj5^^ ^*--^i>ii^"~~~^ "A^Ja^o ^mi^- lSi|6rHl J V v;^"\^at? = - \^^^--^ ^ — \ _Ziiii^^^^'''S^^^^^ fLj ^ \ "^^'^^ 3^so\ >-^!^rr^ J^^^^^J^ ^ 'f^^'^^^^'^^x '' .--'.'"^^^W^ ""'T ~""^ ^ „(»*JC^ , >^ "v^w -^ \ V J)5t§^^%5^ ,42° / w ■^^»\ ' l^^'^K /■-.-■- \,^^^^Cl \k,^v^ £ W^i- >'■■"''' K.iDiisTi ^. — ^' ■■■ ^S^'siSl^^ gg^^ .-•■"Tr "^ K^^ '' ^I^— ^ \ X"^ 1 REFERENCE / !•';",'■ 1 Sn/t/u, A lioattf y r^^^^^J Sn-afiips Dried -vp Tb'yer cfuuuwla J^ 1 J Arid Steppes S- 1 1 Oil/ivatei/ anJ ^^ •uiriil wastes cidtli'nhle Land ^/^ |58" 59" Orawii >iv A-Stom. Scale LONDON. J. S.V FHE AMU DARIA, §t C 9 LIMITED THE OXUS EIVEE SYSTEM. 205 the laud eight-tenths of a millimetre every year. But while the alluvia thus deposited in the artificial canals are annually cleared out, never obstructing the free circidation in the irrigating rills, the natiu-al beds winding towards the Aral become yearly more and more choked up. Here are formed sand-banks and shifting bars dangerous to na-\-igation, and imparting to the stream a natiu-al tendency to overflow into the irrigating works. Geologically speaking, the Oxiis delta consists properly of the alluvial plain yearly fertilised by its waters. The triangular space comprised between the Aral and the two exterior branches, Taldik on the west and Yani-su on the east, is a delta only in appearance, for this tract does not consist of alluvial deposits at all. They are older formations, through which the stream has cut various fortuitous channels, and in which the mean slope is much greater than in the true alluvial plains. From Xukus to the mouths, a distance of over 70 miles in a straight line, the total fall exceeds 60 feet, whereas fi'om New Orleans to the Gulf of Mexico, a much greater distance, it amoimts to no more than a few inches at low water. True deltas are formed only at the mouths of the several branches in the Aral, where the bars ab-eady exclude vessels drawing over 4 feet of water, while farther up the dense growth of reeds, from 20 to 25 feet high, stops all craft except the skiffs of the Khiva fishennen. Nevertheless the steamer Perovsky, di-awing rather more than 40 inches, succeeded iu 1875 in forcing its way by the Yani-su, Lake Dau-kara, and the Kuvan-jerma, or " Xew Cut," up to Xukus, to the great astonishment of the natives. Siace then the navigation of the Lower Oxus has never been interrupted, notwithstanding the obstacles at the entrance and the swift cui-rent, which the steamers often find great difficulty in surmounting. Formerly the Taldik, or western branch, was the deepest ; but like the Darialik, lying still farther westwards, it has been gradually choked up b}' the natiu-al tendencj- of the river to be deflected more and more towards the east. The great changes that have taken place in the course of the Oxus withiQ the historic period are amongst the most remarkable phj-siographic phenomena, com- parable in recent times only to the periodical displacements of the Hoang-ho. That the region of the Lower Oxus is not a true delta, and that the river has not yet cut regular channels through it, is explained by the fact that the Amu has flowed in this direction only during a recent epoch, or probably for not over three himdi-ed and fifty years. Diu-ing the first half of the sixteenth century it was, in fact, an affluent of the Caspian. But even that was but a temporary phenomenon, the Oxus ha\-ing oscillated twice between the Caspian and the Aral since the time of the Greek historians. In the days of Strabo the Oxiis, " largest of all Asiatic rivers except those of India," flowed to the Caspian, and the trade between the Euxine and India followed this river, continuing the valley of the Km- eastwards of the Hp-canian Sea. But in the time of the fli-st Arab and Turkish wi'iters the Oxus, described by Edrisi as " sujjerior in volimie, dejjth, and breadth, to all the rivers of the world," had been diverted northwards to the Aral. In the fourteenth centui-j' it had again resumed its course to the Caspian, towards which there is a relatively steep incline, for the bifurcation of the present and the old bed below Yani-urgenj is 140 feet above the VOL. VI. p 206 ASIATIC EUSSIA. level of the Aral, and 380 feet above that of the Caspian. The new channel was blocked for about two hundred years ; but towards the middle of the sixteenth century the Amu, for the second time during the historic epoch, shifted its course from the Caspian to the Aral. Few geographical questions have given rise to more discussion than these periodical displacements of the Oxus. Some have even denied that it reached the Caspian in the time of the Greeks, attributing the old bed to prehistoric times. The dimes and clay eminences here and there obstructing the channel have been appealed to in proof that the Caspian branch has been diied up for ages, notwith- standing the unanimoiis testimony of the natives to the contrary. The difference in the faimas of the two seas, -^vhich have in common only one species of salmon, have also been referred to in support of the same view. Keverthclcss the historic evidence on the subject is complete, and the docimients quoted by RawKnson, Yule, and others place it beyond doubt that the Western peoples were perfectly acquainted Fig. 107. — Map in the Catalonian Atlas of 1375. E educed Scale. y/fith the " river of Urgenj ' ' — that is, the Oxus — as a tributary of the " Sea of Baku " — that is, the Caspian. A map in the Catalonian atlas of 1375 even shows the Sir and Amu as united in one stream, and this is in accordance with contemporary state- ments. At the same time it is impossible to fix the precise date of the return of the Oxus to the Aral. In 1559, when Jenkinson -sasited Turkestan, it liad already ceased to flow to the Caspian, but it still watered the fields west of Kimia- urgenj, and the traveller himself was able to embark at this city. A little later on Abid- Ghazi, Khan of Urgenj in the beginning of the sixteenth century, tells lis that about 1575 the river, being deflected constantly eastwards, at last abandoned the Urgenj oasis and discharged all its waters into the Aral. The old Caspian branch, which has an average ^\-idth of 1,100 yards, has now been thoroughly surveyed, and is as well known as if it were stiU flooded. Its steep argillaceous banks are cut by the stream to a depth of from 60 to 70 feet ; the sand-banks rising to the surface and the islands in the midst of the riv«r may still be recognised, while the deeper depressions arc often filled with long lakes THE OXUS EIVEE SYSTEM. 207 following the mndings of the stream. But the water has mostly become salt, and the banks are covered with crystalline deposits. A few fresh- water pools even remain, often surroimded with poplar and wild olive thickets. The TJzboi, as this branch is called, was at one time siij^iDosed to have a second mouth south of the island of Cheleken, in the so-called Khiva Bay. But Stebnitzky failed to discover any traces of this branch, though another, forming the true delta of the Old Amu, certainly flowed south of the Darja peninsula. The Turkomans still show the traces of the irrigating rills diverted from the Lower Oxus, which did not end its course in the plam, but made its way through a defile flanked north and south by the Great and Little Balkan respectively. The different sections of this abandoned branch were formerly known by various names — Laudan, Darialik, Kuuia-daria, Uzboi, Engiunj, Deudan ; but it is now generally named the Uzboi from the Khiva coimtry to the Balkan Gulf. It begins east of the Amu delta with three channels, the Fig. 108. — Valley op the Uzboi at the Aidin Wells. Scale 1 : 146,240. 54? 55 ■ ^.oFG. 54.°4S' C.Pemort Darialik, Deudan, and Tonu, of which the first two reunite near Lake Sari-kamish. Beyond this double lake, which was formerly a vast lacustrine basin far more salt than the sea itself, the Uzboi flows southwards to turn the TJst-urt escarpments, after which it trends westwards, piercing the moimtain chain which forms a con- tinuation of the Caucasus east of the Caspian. Beyond this point it joins the Ak- tam " wady," and falls into the fiord-like Gulf of Balkan in the South Caspian, after a total course of about 480 miles. The ruins of towns and villages on its upper course between the Amu delta and Sari-kamish belong evidently to two epochs answering to the two periods during which it flowed to the Caspian. The older towns imply a far higher degree of culture and wealth than the more recent, which differ in no respect from those of the modern khanate of Khiva. Accord- ing to the natives another channel branched off near Charjui far above the present delta, and flowed due west across the now desert Kara-kum stepi^es. p 2 208 ASIATIC EUSSIA. The Aral Sea. The Balkan Gulf penetrates far inland, and the sandy tracts, saline depressions, and extensive morasses found along the course of the Uzboi give it rather the appear- ance of an old marine strait or chain of lakes than of a simple river bed. At some remote geological epoch, and before serving to carry off the waters of the Oxus, the Uzboi probably received those of the Aral Sea, which at that time stood at a higher level than at present, and may have thus communicated directly with the Caspian. When this region was well wooded, as is expressly stated by Strabo and rejjeated by the Arab writers of the tenth centiuy, the Aral basin no doubt stretched south-westwards to the TJst-urt plateau. Its level was naturally subject to considerable vicissitudes from century to century, not only according to the greater or less rainfall, but also in consequence of the changes in the course of the Oxus. Hence, while some featm-es point at a higher, others imply a lower level Fig. 109.— The Balkan Gdlp. . Scale 1 : 1,750,000. ^%^ m^^ /?^/~crys to acr 52- 50' 54°Q0 C Perroo 30 Miles. than at present. It no doubt takes the title of "sea," which it in some respects deserves, if not for its depth, at least for its extent. Still it dejDends for its very existence on its two great feeders, the Oxus and the Sir, and shoidd these shift their course again to the Caspian, it would disappear in a few years. But the Oxus has certainly failed to reach it twice in historic times, while one branch of the Sir has also flowed through the Oxus to the Caspian. Consequently there can be no reasonable doubt that the Aral has at various times been reduced to the proportions of a small steppe lake. In 1870 Stebnitzky estimated its area, exclusive of its four chief islands, at 26,300 square miles. Its deepest part, washing the eastern cliffs of the Ust-urt plateau, is nowhere more than 225 feet ; in the centre it falls to 170 feet ; but elsewhere, and especially on its southern and eastern shores, it is little more than a flooded morass, shifting its limits with the direction of the winds. Taking the moan depth at 40 or even 50 feet, its volmne cannot exceed THE AEAL SEA. 209 1,233,434,000,000 cubic j^arcls, or only 11 times that of Lake Geneva, which is nevertheless 116 times smaller in extent. The mean discharge of the Oxus amoimtlng to 35,000, and of the Sir to 42,000 cubic feet per second, the quantity contributed by both of these feeders, inde- pendently of smaller affluents, which are dry for most of the year, is consequently about 77,000 cubic feet per second. But this is preciselj^ the quantity which would be lost by a yearly evaj)oration of 1,020 millimetres. The actual evaporation is estimated by Schmidt and Dohrandt at 1,150 millimetres, so that even after Fig. 110. — I^•u^•DATION of the Oxus in 1878. Scale 1 : 2,500,000. Land flooded. , 36 Miles. allowing for the slight rainfall on the basin the evaporation must be In excess of the inflow. Hence the lake is diminishing in size, and the Gulf of Aibughir, west of the Oxus delta, which had nearly 4 feet of water hi 1848, had been reduced in 1870 to a mere swamp, completely separated from the Aral by an isthmus of mud and reeds, and in 1872 it had disappeared altogether. It is now partly wooded, and occasionally flooded from the Oxus. The basiii has thus in a few years been reduced in size by about 1,400 square miles. A vast extent of sands on the northern shores forms part of the lake on Gladishev and Muravin's map prepared in 1740, and on the slopes of the western cliffs the old water-marks are visible 210 ASIATIC RUSSIA. 1-iO and even 250 feet above the present level. On the east side the Kirghiz show a mosque originally built at the water's edge, but now standing many luiles from the lake. The sands are thus incessantly encroaching on the waters, and the progress of the dunes along their shores maj' be followed ^nth the eye. Numerous Fig. 111. — The Aral Sea. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. ^ /C/x/^' /Coi-fry^ E-oFG D8' @g- C.PefTon 0to32 Feet. 32 to 64 Feet. IGO Feet and upwards . 30 Miles. islands, formerly mere shoals and banks, now contribute to justify the Turki name of the Lake Aral-denghiz, or " Sea of Islands." But far more rapid must have been the change when the Oxus shifted its channel to the Caspian. "Were such an event to recur, the lake would lose one- twentieth of its volume in the very first year, and in a quarter of a century the THE ARAL SEA. 211 water would have everywhere disappeared except from five depressions reduced to tlie proi)ortions of the other steppe lakes. The Greek and Roman writers, who describe the Oxus as an affluent of the Caspian, make no mention at all of the Aral, which they could not have possibly overlooked, had it at that time occuj^icd anything like so large an area as at present. But at the time of the Arab conquest, when the Oxus had again abandoned the Caspian, the Aral is known to contemporary writers, one of whom, Khorezmi, a native of the country, gives it a circmuference of about 100 leagues. This is about one-third of its actual jDcriphery, which, apart from the smaller indentations, may be estimated at 800 miles. But with the return of Fig. 112. — Old Kiver Beds of the Aralo-Caspiak Basin. Scale 1 : 13,900,000. E o"- G 55 C. Perron Old Watercourses. ^_^___^ 240 Milea. the Oxus to the Caspian the Aral again di-ops out of sight. Even Marco Polo, who crossed from the Volga to the Oxus steppes, makes no allusion to its existence. Hence we may conclude that with the shifting of its affluents the Aral oscillated between the conditions of a sea and a steppe swamp. The quantity of salt contained in its waters also depends upon its volmne. At present .it is so slightly brackish that wild and domestic animals freely di-iuk it, and 11 in 1,000 may be taken as the mean proportion of aU the salts held in solution, which is about one-third less than in the Caspian, while it contains nearly three times the quantity of gj'jjsum. Hence the composition of its waters shows clearly that the Ai'al is not a remnant of an oceanic basin. In its fauna, 212 ASIATIC EUSSIA. which has only recently been carefully studied, both fresh and salt water species are represented. The former, however, prevail, although not including the sturgeon and sterlet of the Caspian. Falk, Pallas, and others have spoken of seals, which woidd have a more intimate connection with the Arctic Ocean and the Caspian. But Maksheyev has shown that this animal is unknown in the Aral, which has altogether only one-third of all the species found in the Caspian. On the other hand, the sccqihirhynchus, a species of iish supposed to have been exclusively American, has been found both in the Sir and the Oxus. The shallows, sudden storms, and scanty popidation of its shores prevent the navigation of the Aral from acquiring any great expansion. Hitherto it has been utilised mainly for military purposes ; but a project has been spoken of which would connect this basin with the inland navigation of Europe by restoring the old com-se of the Uzboi as far as the Gulf of Balkan. This project, already entertained by Peter the Great, has even been partly commenced, and a portion of the Oxus has Fig. 113. — Ak-tau and Moktviy-kultuk. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 43 "'''^^k^^M^. 44' ^4.' E of G C Perron 60 MUea. again been directed towards the Caspian. During the great floods of 1878 the Uzboi received a discharge of 31,500 cubic feet per second, most of which was lost in the sm-roimding swamps, a current of 13 feet alone reaching the Sari-kamish lakes. In 1879 the sujDply from the canal constructed to the Uzboi scarcely exceeded 2,100 cubic feet per second, but by means of side dykes the new river was diverted to the Sari-kamish basins. Nevertheless, these basins being nearly 50 feet below the level of the Cas^Diau, it would be necessary to flood a space of about 400 square miles before their waters would be raised high enough to flow to the Caspian. They might doubtless be avoided by means of an artificial canal. But unless the bars of the Amu are removed, and the course of this river and of the Sir regidated by embankments, the advantage of restoring the Uzboi is not apparent. In a region where the few oases are exposed to the advancing sands every di-op of water should be employed for irrigation purposes. THE TUEKOMAN DESEETS iWD HIGHLANDS. 213 The Turkoman Deserts and Highlands. The Kara-kum, or " Black Sands," a vast triangular space stretching south of the Ai-al hetween the Amu, the Uzboi, the Tekke Tui'koman hills, and the Merv oasis, might again he changed by the fei'tllising waters to a productive land. These soli- tudes, strewn with the ruins of many popidous cities, are now scarcely traversed by a few difhcidt tracks lined at long intervals with wells, which are often found Fig. ll-l. — ExTRANCE TO THE KaKA-EOGHAZ. EciUe 1 : 91,000. to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. ^^^_— li Miles. empty or too brackish to be potable. Here " every di-op of water is a drop of life." Shifting sands, carefully avoided by the caravans, sweep in a succession of dunes over vast distances. Elsewhere the argillaceous soil, hard and crevassed, re-echoes under the horse's hoof, or saline quagmires beguile by their mirages the unwary traveller to their treacherous beds. The land is mostly bare, producing little beyond a few tufts of thistles or dwartish thorny plants. The saksaul thickets are now rare in the desert south of the Oxus, having been mostly destroyed during the last 214 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Fig. 115. — The Tuk-karagan Lakes. ScTle 1 : 500,000. centairy. But some of the slopes skii'tiag the wilderness on the south-west are almost verdant, thanks to the slight rainfall and the few springs rising at the foot of these heights. A zone of cultivated lands thus sejDarates the desert from the Iranian highlands. These are the so-caUed Atok, the home of the Tekke Turko- mans — the Akhal-atok in the west, the Deregez-atok in the centre, and the Kelat- atok in the east. The Great Balkan, north of the old mouth of the Oxus in the Caspian, is the chief summit in those u^Dlauds, which might be called the " Tm-koman Caucasus," forming as they do a con- tiauation of the Great Caucasus east of the Caspian. North of the Great Balkan and of its western extension to the peninsida enclosing the entrance of the Krasnovodsk Bay, there stretches a hilly region, which blends in the so-called " Trans-Caspian territoiy " with the TJst-m't jjlateau. Southwards the less imposing Little Balkan, clothed with a few patches of scant vegetation, forms the extremity of the frontier chain of the Iranian plateau, which rims with remarkable uniformity in a south-easterly direction, and which is known to the Turkomans on the north, and the Persians on the south, by different names. Nearest to the Little Balkan is the Km'an-dagh, followed successively by the Kopet (Kopepet- dagh), or Daman-i-koh, and the Gulistan Mountains, highest of the range, and interrupted eastwards by the Heri-rud and Mm-gh-ab valleys. Co-F G. 50 C Perroo 15 Miles, The Atrek axd Gurg.\n Rivers. Although the Kiu-an and Kopet-dagh may be regarded as the outer rim of the southern uplands, there nevertheless intervenes betw'een them and the plateau proi:)er a broad vaUey watered by the river Atrek. Here, also, as in the Tiau-shan system, the crests cross each other, one running north-west and south-east, the other taking nearly the line of the meridian, and in the angle formed by these two ridges is developed an irregidar and hilly plain sloping towards the Caspian. Although over 300 miles long, the Atrek, even near its mouth, is usually but a feeble stream some 30 feet broad. It has been almost completely exhausted by irrigation works and evaporation before reaching the Caspian. But dui-ing the spring floods THE UST-UET PLATEAU. 215 its waters expand to a width of from 6,500 to over 8,000 feet. Farther south flows a smaller stream, which, however, never rim^s dry, and which abuudautly waters the Astrabad i^lains about the south-east corner of the Caspian. This is the Gui'gan (Jorjau, Hurgau, Vchkrau), or " Wolf Eiver," which abounds in fish, and which, although less than 120 miles long, has acquired great historical importance, and has given its name to the whole region vaguely known to the ancients as Hyrcania. At one time the lower course of this rivei", at another that of the Atrek, is taken as the natui-al frontier of Persia, and it was by ascending their valleys that the Russians have been able to tiu-n the Turkoman positions in their natural strongholds of the Daman-i-koh. Formerly the passage of the Gurgan was defended by the Kizil-alan, or " Red Wall," intended to protect the agricultural populations of Persia against the Turkoman nomads, the accursed Yajug and Majug ("Gog and Magog"), as they were called by the mediaaval Arab writers. Like most of the ruined structures of Fig. 116. — Tentiak-sor. Scale 1 : 770,000. CPerraa 120 Miles. Central Asia, this waU was attributed to Alexander the Great, who, according to the legend, erected it in a few days with the aid of an army of genii. But it seems rather to have been the woik of Khosroes Anurshivan, and when it was built the level of the Caspian appears to have been lower than at jaresent, for its western section advances some miles into the sea. Its ruins may be traced to the soiu'ces of the Gurgan, and even to Bujnurd, in the Upper Atrek valley, so that it must have been over 310 miles long altogether. Little now remains of it except a line of moimds 4 to 6 feet high and 30 feet broad, commanded at intervals of 1,000 paces by ruined towers. The TJst-urt Plateau. Between the Aral and the Casjoian a plateau of limited extent stands like a rocky island between the marine waters and the low stej^pes formerly flooded by the great inland sea of Turkestan. This is the TJst-urt, or "High Plain," so 216 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Fig. 117. — Ogcrchinskit Island. Scale 1 : 300,000. named in contradistinction to the Ast-urt, or "Low Plain," of tlie Kirghiz. It is a tji^ical tableland in its isolation and steep escarpments. The inequalities of the surface are due chiefly to the snows and rains, which have worn the upper strata and excavated coxmtless little ca^•ities with no outlets either to the Aral or the Caspian. Nearly everj'where the Ust-urt is limited by a chinl-, or cliff, which would render it inaccessible but for the ravines by which it is pierced at intervals. From its base spring a nimiber of fresh-water streams with a slight taste of sidphur. West of the Aral Sea the chink forms a continuous wall, in some places over 330 feet high, and certain mysterious structures in the form of truncated pyramids occur here and there along the edge of the cliffs. The plateau consists entirely of tertiary rocks, thus con- trasting sharply with the plains stretching east of the Aral. Its chief eminences attain an altitude of 660 feet above the lake, consequently over 830 feet above the Mediterranean, besides which the Ak-tau, or " White Mountain," forms a small rocky chain running south-east and north-west beyond the plateau far into the Caspian, where it forms the Mangishlak peninsida. Most of the parts hitherto visited by Russian explorers have been found destitute of vegetation. But there are numerous pastures in the flats, and the southern portion of the plateau deserves rather the title of " Plaiu of the Gazelle," or of the " Wild Horse," or of the " Wild Ass," than that of Kaflaukir, or "Plain of the Tiger," conferred on it by the Tiu-komans. This region is even occupied by a Kirghiz population, who, however, are obliged con- stantly to shift their qiiarters. The shortest road from the Caspian to the Oxus delta runs from the eastern extremity of the Mortviy-kultuk Bay north-east across the Ust-ui-t to Kungrad, a distance in a straight line of 250 miles. It was utilised by the Russian traders for the first time in 1878, and was found to present no obstacles to caravans. It is lined at intervals by twelve wells, sufficient for two hundred camels. A railway has to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. -^— — 6 Miles. I EAST COAST OF THE CASPIAN. 217 recently been projected to connect the Caspian and Aral by tbe line of lakes and saline marshes, which probably represent a strait, at one time running between the Mortviy-kidtuk Bay on the Caspian, and the Chernichev inlet on the Aral. Fis 118. — KULALI ISLA>(D. Scale 1 : 270,000. East Co.\st of the Caspi.^x. Some of the ba.sins on the east side of the Caspian, penetrating far into the steppe, ma}- be regarded as distinct lakes, forming the transition between that sea and the saline waters scattered oyer the Turkestan desert. One of these is the Kara- boghaz, or " Black Abyss," which is nearly isolated from the Caspian, forming an oyal expanse some 6,400 square miles in extent. Limited westwards by a slight sand embankment, it communicates with the sea only through a channel from 650 to 2,650 feet broad, and scarcely 4 feet deep at its entrance. A eiu-rent fi-om the Caspian sets steadily across the strait at the rate of from 3 to 4 miles an hour. This dangerous channel is carefully ayoided eyen by explorers, and Jerebtzoy was the first to penetrate through it to suryey the shores of the inner basin. The cause of the rapid ciuTcnt has been ex- plained hj Baer. The Kara- boghaz has only a mean dejJth of fi'om 12 to 40 feet, and is eyei-ywhere exposed to the winds and summer heats, so that here" the eyaporation is excessiye, necessitating a con^ stant inflow to repair the loss. But while eyaporating the moisture, the inland basin retains the salt from the Caspian, and thus becomes constantly more saline. It is said to be already iminhabitable, and the fish carried through from the Caspian become blind in fiye days. Saline incrusta- tions are beginning to be deposited on the bottom, and the basin is fast becoming to 16 Feet. 16 Feet and upwards. ^—^^^— 6 Miles. 218 ASIATIC ETTSSIA. a vast salt-pau, drawing from the Caspian a daily supply estimated by Baer at 350,000 tons of salt, or about as much as is consumed in the whole Russian Empire in six months. The other basins on the east coast, and especially about the Mangishlak peninsula and the Tidi-karagan headland, offer every degree of salinity according to the amount of evajDoration and of salt water received from the Caspian. Some, like the Ashchai-sai, between the Kara-boghaz and the Mangishlak peninsida, having already ceased to communicate with that sea, have di'ied up, and their basins are now fiUed with salt, in some instances covered by sand. The Kara-boghaz is connected bj^ a chain of swamps, saline depressions, and lakelets with the Mortvij'-kultuk, another saline reservoir, which is gradually being cut off from the north-west gulf of the Caspian. It is already little more than a steppe lake, with a mean depth of less than 7 feet ; it is being constantly invaded by the sands of the desert, raising its level, and rajaidly changing it to a vast salt marsh. But before it becomes completely detached from the Caspian, the Kaidak, or Kara-su (" Black "Water ") channel, stretching south-westwards towards the Kara-boghaz, will itself have been changed to a salt lake. It fills a long and deep fissure commanded by the steep cliffs, which form a continuation of the Ust- urt chinlj. In the sixteenth century, when the steppe tribes were stdl independent of Russia, the great international fair was held on the shores of the Kara-su. At that time the bar separating this fiord from the Mortviy-kidtuk could be easily crossed, but it is now almost inaccessible, and in 1843 the Russians were obliged to abandon the fortress of Novo-Alexandrovsk, which they had erected in 182G on the east side of the Kara-su. The Mortviy-kultuk is already twice as salt as the Caspian, while the salinity of the Kara-su even exceeds that of the Gulf of Suez, the most intensely salt of all basins commimicating directly ■n-ith the ocean. The whole region stretching north-east of the Caspian, and connected by a chain of swamps with the Aral basin, presents the same evidences of transition from the sea to steppe lakes. Here are nothing but low-lying, marshy, and reedy tracts, which again become flooded after the prevalence for a few daj's of the fierce west winds. Until the year 1879 the Russian officials were in the habit of avoiding the swampy and saline region of the Tentiak-sor by skirting its northern limits, and the Astrakhan and Gurj^ev fishermen had taken advantage of this negligence to ciu'e their fish without paying the rcgidar tax. Notwithstanding the vast alluvial deposits brought down by the Volga and other rivers from the west, this side of the Caspian is still much deeper than the opposite. Off the Turkoman coast, between Krasnovodsk and Chikishlar, depths of 28 fathoms do not occur within distances of from 30 to 45 miles of the shore, whereas on the European side 330 fathoms are reached at corresponding distances from the coast. A submerged .shore stretches from the Krasnovodsk peninsula to the coast of Mazenderan, and the long island of Ogurchinskiy, or the '' Cuciuuber," as the Russians call it, is evidently a remnant of that shore. North of the Mangishlak peninsida the island of Kulali forms a similar sandy dune of the characteristic crescent shape so common to shifting sands. The Caspian has INHABITANTS OF THE AEALO-CASPIAN EEGIONS. 219 evidently been subject to frequent changes of level since its separation from the Euxine. While the bugri of the Tolga delta show that at one time the waters subsided rapidly, the contours of the Cuciunber and Kiilali Islands, moulded by the regular action of the waves, are, on the other hand, a proof of a period of upheaval. The direct observations taken between 1830 and 1863, compared with the marks scored by Lenz in a rock near Baku, show a subsidence of 46 inches. The two trigonometrical surveys of the Caucasus made in 1830 and 1860 show almost identical results, so that in 1860 the Caspian must have been more than 86 feet below the level of the Euxine. YI.— IXHABITA:s'TS of the AEALO-CASPIAIf REGIONS. ALTHorcn commonly known as Tm-kestan or Tatary, this part of the Asiatic continent is not exclusively occupied by peoples of Turki stock, and it is even probable that the original population was Aryan. But however this be, these boundless steppe lands are ethnically a region of contrasts. The opposition presented by the wonderful gardens watered by the Amu and the Sir to the frightfid wildernesses of the " Red " and " Black Sands " reappears in the inhabitants themselves, some occupied with agricidture and industrj-, other nomad pastors sweeping the desert and ever prej-ing on the wealth amassed bv their sedentary neighbours in the fertile oases. Commercial relations are established from town to town, but between townsfolk and nomads incessant warfare was fonnerly the normal and natural state. The desert encroaches on the oasis, and the wandering shepherd threatens the tiller of the soil. Such was the struggle carried on from the remotest antiquity, interrupted only by foreign conquest, which for a time associated the Aralo-Caspian basin with other regions, but which also swept away all local civilisation by wholesale slaughter. ISTowhere else have the conflicting elements been more evenly balanced ; nowhere else has even religion assumed such a decided dualistic character. It was in the land of the Baktrians — a paradise of verdure encompassed by a wilderness of sands — that was developed the Iranian Mazdcism, the worship of the tvrm and irreconcilable principles of good and evil engaged in a ceaseless struggle for the ascendancy. Ormuzd and Ahriman have each their hosts of spirits who do battle in the heavens, while mankind takes part in the everlasting conflict on earth. At the same time the division into a nomad and a settled element is far more an ethical and traditional than an ethnical distinction. Iran and Turan are symbolic expressions rather than terms answering to an outward reality. Amongst the sedentary and cultured races of the Aralo-Caspian regions the Turki and even the ilongol elements are strongly represented, while the Ai-yans, descendants of Parthian and Persian, also form a certain section of the wandering population in the Oxus basin. According to the political vicissitudes, corresponding largely with those of the local climate, the cultured agricultural nations and the pastoral steppe tribes each prevailed in their turn, while now one, now another of the contending 220 ASIATIC EUSSIA. elements was favoured by the foreign conquerors — Iranians, Macedonians, Arabs, Mongols, Russians. Thanks to the Slav preponderance, the Aryans are now once more in the ascendancy, but there is room for all in a land whose resources, if properly utilised, would largely suffice for Iranian and Turanian alike. The actual population of the whole region, about which the greatest uncertainty still prevails, is roughly estimated at about 7,000,000, or less than 4 to the square mile. Still more imcertain arc the attempts at classification according to speech and origin. All that can be positively asserted is that the " Turanian" element is the strongest, forming jDrobably over two-thirds of the entire population. The TrRKOMAXs. Of the Turanians the chief branches are the Kirghiz and the Tui'komans, or Turkmenians, the latter of whom roam over the south-western parts from the TJst-urt plateau to Balkh, a vast domain of altogether about 200,000 square miles. Estimated at nearly 1,000,000, they are divided into nimierous tribes and sub-tribes, grouped in hordes, each of which again comprises a number of clans or families. These are again often further modified by conquest and migrations, but the main di^■isions are maintained, and from political causes often acquire a distinctive character. Since the fall of Geok-tepe and the submission of the Akhal Tekkes in 1881, the whole of the Turkoman race may be regarded as either directly or indirectly subject to Hussian control. About 200,000 are nominal subjects of the Khan of Khiva, and these are gradually blending with the sedentary Sartes and the Uzbegs. Most of the Yomuds are no doubt tributaries of Persia, but for eight months in the year they camp north of the Atrek, and are then obliged to select a Eiian responsible to the Russian Government. The Ersari recognise the authority of the Emir of Bokhara, himself dependent on the Muscovites, and the El-Eli owe an enforced allegiance to the ephemeral rulers of Afghan Turkestan. The Tekkes and Sariks of Merv still maintain their political independence, but the Salors, originally also of Merv, and claiming to be the noblest of the race, are now subject to the Tekkes. The classification of all these tribes is beset with difficulties, and the greatest discrepancies prevail in the different estimates of travellers and explorers. According to Petrusevich the chief divisions are as under : — Tekkes of Merv .50,000 Kibitkas, or 250,000 souls. Telckcs of the Atok .... 30,000 ,, 1.50,000 „ Ersari 40,000 „ 200,000 ,, Yomuds 20,000 „ 100,000 „ Sariks 20,000 „ 100,000 „ Goklans 9,000 „ 45,000 „ Chudors 6.000 ,. 30,000 „ El-Eli 3,000 „ 15,000 „ Salors 3,000 „ 15,000 „ Most of the Turkomans, especially those on the skirts of the desert between the Atrek and Oxus, have preserved the characteristic traits of the race — broad brow, small and piercing oblique eyes, small nose, rather thick lips, ears projecting from the head, black and scant beard, short thick hair. In the Atrek valley and the THE TLrRKOXIANS. 221 higliluuds skirting tlie Iranian plateau there is a large mixture of Persian blood, due to the women carried off in their constant raids on the frontier. But while thus partly losing his Tatar expression, the Atrek Turkoman still retains his piercing glance, proud and martial bearing, by which he is distinguished from the Kirghiz, Uzbegs, Kara-Kalpaks, and other branches of the race. They are mostly Fi?. 119. — Turkoman Fbmale Heab-dbess. ri .i. •, !iM, ■ i'.' ifiiii' ■' i,!:i!|| 1 I : 'Hijiijinnni'/i': D'liiiiMiiiil'i' ;pUi'l(i|j''!i 'qliili'jlji' 'ilSHiiiiii -^'.i 1.^5' ill'' i , mm also of tall stature, Tery vigorous and active. Except in Merv and a few other places, all dwell in the kibitka, or felt tent, and the strength of the tribe is estimated according to the nimiber of these tents, which are reckoned to contain about five souls each. Their whole furniture is restricted to a few rugs and couches. The national dress consists for both sexes of a long silk smock reaching fi-om the shoulders to the ankles, to which the men add the chapan, or khalni, somewhat like a European VOL. VI. Q 222 ASIATIC RUSSIA. dressing-gown, and as head-di'ess a light fur cap. The women usually wear nothing but the long smock, adding on .special occasions a largo shawl, girdle, red or yellow boots, bracelets, necklaces, and earrings. They vnl\ sometimes even pass rings through the cartilage of the nostrils, and commonly attach to the breast little caskets of amulets resembling cartouch boxes, and which accompany their move- ments ■with a metalKc cliuk. Coias, coloured gems, true or false, gold and silver ornaments, deck their head-di'ess, which occasionally assmues such jjroportions that the face seems to be enframed like a holy image ia its shrine. They do not veil their features, like other Mohammedan women, for, as they say, " how can we, poor steppe people, conform to town usages ? " The Tiu'komans of the Daman-i-koh oasis recognise no chiefs. " We are a people without a head," they say haughtily ; " we are all equal, and each of us is a kine ! We can endure neither the shade of a tree nor the shadow of a chief." Some members of the tribe no doubt take the title of ak-saJ;al, or " White Beard," btti/, bii (Bey), or even Khan. But this is mere make-belief, and no one dreams of showing them any more deference than to other warriors, unless specially distin- guished for courage or other virtues, or unless they have secured a following by the sale of corn on credit. Those known as the " Good " — tlmt is, the wealthy, the men of experience, the bravest in the field — enjoy great influence in the council, when weighty matters are imder discussion. But they have no judicial authority, and nobody ever appeals to any one in case of theft, injury, or other wrongs. He avenges himseK as best he can, and feuds are thus handed down from generation to generation, imless the original offence is repaired by a monetary comjDensation. The steppe life is mainly regulated by the clcb, or imwritten code, which requires all to respect their jjeacefi-d neighbours, to practise hospitality, and to keep their pledged word. The Turkomans are distinguished from the surroimding peoples — Persians, Afghans, Bokhariots — by greater ujjrightuess and less corrupt morals. In war alone they give fidl bent to their innate ferocity, while in the ordinary relations of life distinguishing themselves for their strict honesty. Amongst them it is the debtor, not the creditor, who keeps the receipts for borrowed money, in oi'der not to forget the extent of his obligations. The docmnent is no concern of the creditor, though it may be feared that the " civilisation " introduced by the Russians will tend to modify these customs. Amongst the Turkomans the practice of simidated abduction still prevails. The intended bride, enveloped in a long veil and with a kid or lamb in her arms, moimts on horseback, gallops off at full speed, and by sudden turns pretends to escape from the abductor pursuing her at the head of a troop of friends. Two or three days after the wedding she feigns a fresh escape, remaining a fidl year with her parents, in order to give her husband time to go kidnapping, and thus pay her dowry in captive slaves. Other social events are associated with old sjonbolic customs. Thus it is not suflScient to weep for the dead, but every day for a twelve- month the relations and friends are expected to vent their grief in dismal bowlings at the very hour when the death took j)lace, without, however, for a moment interrupting their ordinary pursuits. They thus often take to howling in the very H M H O o M PS LISRARY TF THE THE TURKOMANS. 223 act of eating, drinking, or smoking, to the great amazement of the uninformed " stranger within their gates." If the departed was a famous warrior, a yolsa, or barrow, is raised over his grave. Every bravo of the tribe contributes at least seven bushelfids of earth to the mound, whence those hillocks 25 to 30 feet high dotted over the steppe. All the Turkomans speak closely related varieties of the Jagatai Turki language, and all are Sunnite Mussidmans. The most zealous are probably those of the Persian frontier, who find in their pious hatred of the Shiah sectaries a pretext for their forays and the hard fate thej^ impose upon the captives. They also claim the right of plundering and murdering the orthodox Khivans and Bokhariots, but onlv in Fig. 120. — Tekke Turkoman Oasis in the Atok. Scale 1 : 4,200,000. 59", ■ KizTl-Arvat 39' Nai /T Cen^li tepo f U .Askhabad *? r^-^^:-- C. Perron . 60 Miles- virtue of the lex talionis calling upon them to avenge former massacres. So recently as 1830 they ventured in frail barks on the CasjDian, to capture slaves on the Baku coast, and the Russian naval station of Ashu-rade was founded to check their incursions. Since then their ships of war have become fishing craft. Certain Persian districts have become completely depopulated by these raids, and elsewhere the sur-\-iving inhabitants .shut themselves up in villages resembling fortresses, where the scouts watch day and night to give the alarm. In more exposed places towers are erected at intervals of 100 paces. Yet in spite of all these precautions the number of Per.sians cajDtured during one century has been estimated at a million, and as many as 200,000 slaves were at one time in bondage in Tiu'kestan. Q 2 224 ASLVTIC RUSSIA. Marauder by profession, the "black" Turkoman devotes himself entirely to this one pursuit. He tends and trains his horse, his comrade in toil and danger, leaving all other work to the women and slaves. In the saddle he " knows neither father nor mother," and his highest ambition is to bring back captives to the camp. AVTien he starts on an alaman, or foray, at midnight — for he loves darkness like the beast of prey — an ishau, or itinerant dervish, never fails to bless him and beg the favour of heaven on his noble enterprise. All feeble or decrepit caj)tives are slaughtered, the rest are chained iu Fig. 121.— Area of the Turkoman Raids South of gangs and driven away at the point of the spear. The priest alone is spared, lest his fate might bring ill-luck on the freebooters. Formerly most of the prisoners were destined to perish miserably iu bondage. But many of then- sons, and often the slaves themselves, gradually bettered their condition by their tact or intelligence, mostly far superior to -Area of the Turkoman Raids South of KlZIL-ARVAT. Scale 1 : 3,320,000. se ^-^^.*^ ^_^_ ■A'-P'U'f-- ■''JVw'^J^V^ ^vit^^-aK in becoming traders, high officials, or governors of districts. In the still semi- independent khanates to them are usually intrusted the more delicate and best-paid duties. Although originally Shiah heretics, they soon confonn to the prevalent Sunnite fonu of worship. Since the abolition of the slave trade in the khanates, caj^tures are now made only with a view to their ransom, a trade formerly carried on by some of the Khorassan chiefs themselves, who often made handsome profits by the sale of their o^vn subjects. Of late years the raids have greatly diminished,. owing mainly to the pro- gress of the Russians on the west, north, and north-east, but also partly to a more systematic resistance on the side of Persia. Here the Turkomans now find them- selves opposed by Kurd colonists settled by the Persian Government in the upland valleys, and who bravely defend their new homes. The Turkomans, seeing them- selves thus hemmed in on all sides, are gradually obliged to turn from pillage to farming. The Goklans are already mostly peaceful agriculturists, and cultivate the silkworm with success. Numerous Tekke hordes also are now settled on the EcfG that of their masters. After being sold in the Khiva and Bokhara markets, many Persian captives succeeded Furts . 00 MUes. THE KARA-KALPAKS AND KIEGHIZ. 225 land, and enlarging the domain of their oasis by means of irrigating works. Their moral tone has even unproved, and in their interviews with Em-opean travellers they will warmly defend themselves against the charge of brigandage. The national sav-ing, " If marauders attack thy father's tent, take part in the phmder," has lost all significance, and most of the tribes easily pass from the nomad to the settled state. The cultivation of certain alimentary plants is even consistent with a semi-nomad existence. To raise the cereal known from them as the Polygonum Tartaricum (sarrasin), the Tatars fire the surface vegetation, sow and reap within two or three months, and then betake themselves elsewhere. The herd.smen migrate regularly with the seasons between the same pastures on the Iranian tableland and in the plains, and are thus in a transition state between a nomad and settled life. Hence the Eussians cxi^cct to reduce the tribes of South Turkestan as thej- have already reduced their northern kinsmen, hy erecting forts commanding their winter camping groimds. They have also established depots for provisions at certain intervals, and are pushing on the line of railway rimning from the south-east corner of the Caspian towards Askhabad and Merv. The horse and camel, inseparable companions of the nomad Turkoman, must naturally diminish in numbers, at first through the hopeless struggle with the Russians, and then through the increasing development of agriculture. Most of the native camels are of the Baktrian or dromedary species, with one himip only, smaller and weaker than the Arabian, but more capable of endm-ing heat. They can make 24 miles a day under a burden of 400 or even 500 lbs. Thej- move imtrammelled about the tents, and will occasionally return to the steppe for months at a time. The Tiu'koman horses, a cross between the Arab and the native breed, although unshapelj-, have scarcely their equals for stajdng power. Instances have been cited of 600 miles covered in five or six consecutive days ; for, as the proverb goes, " One brigand's journey is better than two of a merchant." These horses, highly esteemed by the Russian officers, have longer heads, narrower chests, more shaggy legs than the pure Arab, but they are less affected by climate, hungei', and thirst. Brought up with the children in the tent, and caressed by woman's hand, they are remarkably gentle and intelligent, and carry their heads well. The Turkoman horse is well cared for, and he may often be seen with a wann felt housing when the tent is in shreds and the family in rags. The K.\ra-Kai,p.\ks and Kirghiz. The Kara-Kalpaks, or " Black Caps," form geographically the transition between the southern Turkomans and northern Kii'ghiz. Survivors of a powerful nation, they are still represented in a fragmentary way throughout a vast area — in the Russian Govei-nments of Astrakhan, Perm, and Orenburg, in the Caucasian province of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia. Scattered by forced or volimtary migrations over these extensive regions, they still claim to belong originally to the Kharezm. A few small groups are found in the Zarafshan valley, but the bulk of the race still forms a compact body in the humid plains of the Lower Oxus, and along the east 226 ASIATIC EUSSIA. coast of the Aral Sea. Here they number probably 50,000, and in the whole Russian Empire about 300,000. On the Ai-d\ ISea the Black Caps, so named from their high sheepskin head-dress, are mostly tall and robust, with broad flat face, large eyes, short nose, prominent chin, broad hands. Yet their women have the reputation of being the most beautiful in Turkestan. But they can scarcely be said to present a distinct racial type. Widel}- diffused as they are amongst different peoples, they seem to have been diversely mixed, and in Tatary they blend imperceptibly with the hybrid Sartes. Of a gentle, peaceful disposition, and devoted to agricultm-c, they are generally the butt of their nomad neigh- bours, who regard them as the dullest of mankind. And there are certainly some groimds for this ^-iew, for their expression lacks fire, and they generally look stolidlj' on with open mouth and hanging lower lij). In a few generations this lethargic race will probably have ceased to exist as an indeiDcndcnt nationality in Turkestan. The great Kirghiz nation, nimibering perhaps 2,000,000, according to Krasovsky even 3,000,000 souls, and whose domain, as large as aU Eiu'opean Russia, stretches from the Lower Volga to the Tarim basin, and from the Oxus delta to the Irtish river, is numerically the most important nomad race in Asia. But it has no ethnical cohesion, and is split up into endless subdivisions. The people compare themselves to the sea-sands, scattered far and near by the winds, but never dimiuisliiug in nmnbers. The two main divisions of the race answer to the relief of the land. In the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins dwell the Kirghiz- Kazaks, b}' far the more numerous. In the upland Tian-shan, Alai, and Pamir valleys roam the Bm-ut, or Kara-Kirghiz ("Black Kii'ghiz "), called also Biko- kmnennie Kinjhizi, or "Wild Mountain Kirghiz," the "Block Kirghiz" of English writers. The Kirghiz caU themselves Kaizaks, or Kazaks, although the term Kirghiz, or rather Krghiz, is not imknown, and Luterpreted h\ them to mean " Forty Girls," in reference to their legendary descent from forty yoimg women and a red dog. They are divided into four hordes : the Great Horde (Ulu-Yuz), the oldest, chiefly south of Lake Balkash and near the Tian-shan ; the Middle Horde (Urta-Yuz), mainly in the low hilh' region between the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins ; the Bukej-evskaya, or Inner Horde, in the Orenbm-g stej^pes ; the Little Horde (Kachi-Yuz), stretching westwards far into European Russia. In spite of its name this horde is by far the most important in nimibers, socially and politi- cally. As wdth the Turkomans, the soyuz, or confederacy, is divided into secondary groups, and these into clans and families comprising from fi\e to fifteen tents each. Each of these aids, or little communities, lives in absolute independence, reluctantly acknowledging the supreme control of the Russiaus, but recognising no other authorit}' except that of the heads of families and the arbitrators chosen by them- selves to settle their differences. The Russians are satisfied with imposing a tax of about five shillings per tent ; but they find some difiiculty in discovering all the encampments hid a\\ay in the hollows, between sand dunes, amongst the reedy marshes, or imder cover of the forests, and the camping grounds they come IBIlifel S5 W I o LIBRARY OF THE THE KARA-KALPAES AND KIRGHIZ. 227 Fig. 122. — A Wealthy Kirghiz. upon are often found abandoned bj- the tribes migrating to and fro with the seasons. Hence the official returns are always under the truth, although fresh defaulters yearly come to light. In LS-37, the fu'st year of the impost, 15, 500 tents only could be discovered in Orenbm-g, but these had increased in 1846 tn 67,280, and in 1862 to upwards of 155,000. In 1872 the first census taken in the provinces of Turgai and tlralsk returned 605,000 nomads, and the Buke- yevskaya horde, we.st of the Ural Eiver, is variously estimated at from 160,000 to over 200,000 .souls. Being without chiefs, all the Ku'ghiz consider themselves as more or less nobles. AYhen two meet together, the first question is, " Who are your seven ancestors ? " and all, do^^^l to the children eight years old, can rejDeat in reply their genealogies to the seventh generation. Those on whom the Russians have conferred certain jirivileges, and whom they have made " sultans," without, how- ever, exempting them from the poll tax, are surrounded by a riff-raff of Teleguts, or refugees, strangers, and slaves, forming bands of armed retainers during the former intestine wars, and who now tend their masters' flocks and till his land. This class is much despised by the free nomads, and is excluded from all clanship, living apart from the tribe in separate camps ■^-ith their masters, who are equally hated by the people. The hiis, or "elders," arc the judges elected by the clan, to whom all appeal for a settlement of their disputes. Each tribe is distinguished by a particular rallpng cry used by the members in their festive and ho.stile gatherings. The Kirghiz language, which is spoken with great uniformity by all the tribes, is of pm-e Turki stock, unaffected by foreign influences, beyond a few Mongol, ^\j'ab, and Persian words. In the north Russian has already made some encroachment on its domain, and the Orenburgr Kirffhiz even converse in this language. But the Slav colonists have probably borrowed more in theii- colloquial speech from the nomads than these have from theii' conquerors. Of all the Eirghiz tribes, the Kipchaps of the Middle Horde seem to have best preserved their original type, ancient usages, and purity of speech. The origin of the race has been much discussed by ethnologists, some of whom have even regarded them as Aryan Sc^■thians like those of the Euxine shores. But their most marked affinities are now with the Mongols and Tatars, with whom they form one linguistic group. They have squat figm-es, short thick necks, small and oblique eyes, scant beard, tawny or dirty brown complexion. Obesity is common amongst the Orenburg tribes, and is considered by the nobles as a sort of distinctive mark enhancing their dignity. They are mostly very robust, but indolent and soft uncouth, and heavj- in their carriage, and slightly bandy-legged from passing 228 ASIATIC RUSSIA. half their time in the saddle. Like the Nogai Tatars, they are often dull and morose, and few amongst them have the courtesy, heartiness, and good-humour of the Bashkirs, or the defiant look of the Turkomans. In their songs the women celebrate the indolence of the men and their own laborious life. Accustomed to regular work, they are generally more graceful than the men, whom they also surpass in moral qualities. On feast daj-s they love to deck themselves in high velvet or brocaded caps adorned with plaques of metal, pearls, and embroidery, and jjrolong their tresses to Fig. 123.-A Kirghiz Woman. the ground by means of ribbons and horsehair. They use rouge and other cosmetics even more freely than Euro- pean women. The steppe Kirghiz are essentiallj' nomads, shifting their quarters on the slightest pretext, a bad omen, a storm, and the like. In 1820 most of the Astrakhan tribes left their camping grounds in order to return to Asia, on the simple report that the Government was preparing to have their census taken. Even the " .sidtans " have declined to occupy the fixed dwellings erected for them, and continue to live in tents, locking up all their valuable effects in the houses, for all alike feel that a sedentary life in settled abodes woidd eventually entail loss of freedom. The Kirghiz yurt, like those of the Kaknuksand the Turkoman kibitkas, is a simple framework of wood, covered with red cloth for some of the "sultans," ■n'ith white felt for the wealthy, and with ordinary felt for the common folk, the very poor substituting for felt bark of trees, reed, or grass matting. In haH an hour a whole aul has vanished, migrating northwards in summer and southwards in winter. The Kirghiz-Kazaks lack the warlike spirit of their Tm-koman kinsmen. Kevertheless they long resisted the Slav invaders, and even when accepting the Czar's supremacy in 1734, thej- fancied they were merely perfonning an idle formality. Hence, when they foimd that the Russians meant it seriously, the wai was renewed, and lasted intermittently for over a century. A last revolt took place in 1870, when they destroyed a Russian village and besieged Fort •iV THE 'SnYoflLliiv THE KAEA-KALPAKS AND KIEGHIZ. 229 Alexancli'ovsk. But tliey are naturally of a peaceful temperament, and their occasional barantas, or armed forays, are usually restricted to horse-stealing. Their arms are chiefly used in the chase, of which they are excessively fond, eagerly pursuing the steppe wolf, and training the falcon, vultm-e, and even the royal eagle to capture the quarry. But the emplojnnent of the eagle is not imattended with danger, for when they lose sight of the wolf or fox, these bird? will swoop do^^^l on their master instead, strilviug him from the saddle, burying their talons in his flesh, and tearing out his eyes. The Kazaks call themselves Sunnites, but are such strangers to all fanaticism that they might just as well pass for Shamanists or pagans. Some wiU. even tell the inquiring traveller that they do not know to what religion they belong. They have become Mohanunedans only since their contact with the Russians, who have mainly contributed to make them followers of the Prophet by taking the fact for granted. Still the great bulk of the people remain what they always were, while accepting the elements of terror from all the surroimding religions. Their Mohammedanism consists chiefly in hating Christians and the Shiah heretics, and in believing themselves privileged to rob, plunder, and even slaughter them. Their religious practices have otherwise little to do with the precepts of the Koran. They dread especially the evil eye, and never fail to deck the head of the young camel in party-coloured ribbons in order to protect him from evil influences. Everything is construed into an omen for good or evil — the fall of a thread on a black or white stone, the red or yellow hue of the flame from oil thrown on the fire, and the like. They endeavour to conjm-e the wicked spirits by sacrifices or the offering of hair, rags or ribbons attached to reeds, bushes or stakes fixed in the groimd. In the moimtains thej' also suspend shreds of garments to the branches of the trees shading the medicinal springs. When setting out on a journey or warlike expedition they sew to the back of their hats one or two little bags containing written prayers, intended at once to give them luck and inspire them with courage. Of all Mohammedan practices polygamy has been most readilj' accepted, not by the masses, who are too poor to paj' more than once the J;aHm, or price of a spouse, but by the wealthy owTiers of himdreds and thousands of live stock. As amongst most barbarous peoples, the formalitj' of a sham abduction is stiU kept up here and there. But girls are often really carried off as, the prize of war. They are sought especially amongst the Kalmuks of the Tian-shan, for the Kazaks are by tradition exogamous, seeking alliances outside the tribe or race, a circumstance which sufficiently explains the striking phj'sical resemblance between them and their Mongolian neighboiu's. The old customs associated with the burial of the dead are still maintained in full vigour. The mourning rites, including much wailing and weeping, are renewed on the fortieth, and again on the hundi-edth day of the funeral, on the first, and lastly on the ninth anniversarj-. The relatives beat their breasts and utter lamentations night and morning before a "lay figiu-e " dressed in the garments of the dej^arted. The fimeral moimds on the crests of the hiUs, marked by spears with horsehair banners, are objects of great respect. Some 230 ASIATIC RUSSIA. hills are entirely covered with pj'ramids, turrets, domes, porticos, and other monu- ments in honour of the dead. These monuments will sometimes take the form of cradles for infants, or of the tents in which their parents lived. Numerous barrows occur also on the o^yen steppe, one of which, on the banks of the Turgai, is 106 feet high and 966 feet round. At these places the peoj)^ make their genuflexions, offering clothes, provisions, and money to their departed friends. These gifts are appropriated by the poor waj'farers as presents from the dead ; but they are themselves expected to make some slight offering in return. Although in the general development of human cultm-e husbandly is regarded as an advance upon the pastoral state, this is not the case with the Kirghiz. Amongst them the farm labourer is a person fallen from a better position, who has lost all the pleasures of life and freedom. Most of them are still nomads, and those who are compelled, for want of herds, to till the laud about the Eussian can- tonments in the second generation relinquish the name of Kazak, dress in the Russian fashion, and call themselves Christians. Along the outskirts of the Kirghiz domain the Russian traders get the natives into their power by means of loans at exorbitant rates of interest, and their example finds faithful imitators in the interior of the stej^pe amongst the "khans," or wealthy Kazaks. Some of these khans are owners of hundreds of camels, thousands of horses, and as many as 20,000 sheep. The horned cattle introduced since about 1750 are rather less numerous, and ill adapted to the climate. In 1872 the live stock included altogether 120,000 camels, 1,720,000 horses, 600,000 oxen, 2,000,000 sheep, and 180,000 goats. Unacclimatized animals perish from the rigour of the climate. The attempts to introduce the Baktrian dromedary have failed, the two-humped camel alone thriving on these stepj^es. The sheep, all of the fat-tailed breed, are usually so strong and tall that the children amuse themselves by mounting them. The flocks are always guided by a few goats, and at the beginning of winter, before the streams are frozen hard enough to bear their weight, hundreds sometimes perish in the attempt to follow their light-footed leaders. The Kirghiz horse, though of sorry appearance, does his 50 and even 60 miles a day at a trot, eats what he can pick lip, .sleeps on the sands, and resists the extremes of heat and cold. In their baif/as, or races, the Kirghiz and Kalmuk jockeys easily do 12 miles in half an hour, and some riders have been known, by relays of horses, to cover 180 miles in 34 hours. The finer breeds, karabdir, ov "half blood," and argamak, or "full blood," have less staying powers. The Kara-Kirghiz, or Buruts, numbering from 350,000 to 400,000 on both slopes of the Tian-shan, differ but slightlj' in type, speech, and customs from their steppe kindred. Nevertheless they are evidently more affected by Mongol influ- ences, and are not to be distinguished physically from the Kalmuks. j\Iost of their women are regarded hy the Russians as very ugly. Thej' do not veil their features, and on gala days wear a head-dress like that of their Turkoman sisters, covered with coins and medals, and making a jingling noise at every step. Of drunken and dirty habits, they never wash, and merely wipe their kitchen utensils THE TAEANCHIS AND DUNGANS. 231 ■with the finger, for fear of "wilful waste." The Bunits are altogether ruder and more ignorant than the steppe Kirghiz, but have the reputation of being more honest and ojjen. JVotwithstanding their present debased condition they seem to have been formerh- a civilised people, and the Chinese speak of the " Ki-si-li- tzi " as a powerful industrious nation in commercial relations with distant lands. But multitudes were swept south and west by the waves of migration, and those who remained behind were gradually driven to the uj^land valleys. Then came the Russians, who extenninated all the Siberian steppe Kirghiz east of the Irtish. Of theii- old ci\-ilisation they have retained several industries, and they can still build windmills, forge iron, and weave fine materials. Though lacking the aristocratic vanity of the Kazaks, their w?a««/;s, or chiefs, have acquired great power in some tribes, disposing even of the lives of their subjects. The memory of their past glories has not quite perished, and their poets and improvisatori still sing of the heroes {batir\ who pierced a thousand men at a spear's thi'ust, and raised up the moimtain on which slumbered their bride. Attempts have been made to discover in these songs the fragments of epic poems, and some of their invocations breathe a Tedic spirit. " O, thou on high. Lord of heaven ! thou who causest the verdure to spring from the grovmd, and the leaves from the tree ; thou who clothest the bones ^vith flesh and the head with hair, heaven, who hast given birth to the stars ! " You, rulers sixty, who have given us father, and thou, Pai Ulguen, who hast given us mother ! " Give us cattle, give us bread, give a chief to the house, give us a blessing ! " The Kara-Kirghiz are divided into many tribes. Those of the west are grouped under the collective name of On, or " Eight," those of the Tian-shan slopes forming the Sol, or " Left " branch. The latter are in close contact with the Tian-shan Kalmiis, jiarth' descended from those who escaped from the Astrakhan steppes in 1771, and large numbers of whom perished on the route. Vanquished h\ the Kirghiz in a battle fought south of Lake Balkhash, the Kalmuks took refuge in the Eastern Tian-shan valleys by the side of their kins- men, the Torgs, or Torguts, Buddhists like themselves, and of kindi-ed speech. The Asiatic Kalmuks differ little from their European brethren. They have the same flat face, narrow oblique eyes, pale lips, sad smile, massive frame. The women of man}- tribes dye their teeth black. The Kalmuks have trained the ox as a beast of burden and for the saddle. N^o people have suffered more from the ravages of small-pox. A family attacked in winter is a family lost, and should any one enter the tent unguardedly he gets drunk on brand}^ while his friends drive the evil one out of his body with scourges. The Kalmuks pay little heed to the dead, seldom burying them, and usually leaving the bodies to be devoured by the camp dogs. The Taranchis and Dixgaxs. In the fertile valley of the Hi the predominant people are the Taranchis, an agricultural nation of Turki stock, but evidently largely affected by Aryan elements. 282 ASIATIC RUSSIA. The}' are descended from Kasligarian colonists settled hci-e l)_y the Chinese in the middle of last century. Although nominal IMussulmans, they have little know- ledge of the precepts of the Koran, and the women never veil their features. All the inhabitants of the Ili basin except a few Russians came originally from Chinese territory in the south and east. The best known are the Dungans, who dwell chiefly in the toT\Tis. The Scions, descended from military Tungus colonists settled here in the eighteenth century, are dying out from the effects of opium. The Sibos, or Shibos, who formed with the Solons an army of eight " banners," were of pure Manchu stock, but have now become much mixed with native elements. This region of Kulja has in modern times been the scene of the most frightful massacres, often ending in the extermination of whole races. In 1758 the Manchus Fig. 124. — Populations of the Ili Basin. Scale 1 : 6,000,000. ■ C Perron Russians. Kirgbiz-Kazaks. Kalrauks. Kara -Kirghiz. Taranchis 60 Miles. Dungans. Kashgariana. are said to have put to death all the Kabnuks of the Ili plain -without distinction of age or sex. Over a million hiiman beings appear to have perished on this occa- sion. A century afterwards the Taranchis and Dimgans, introduced by the Manchus to replace the Kalmuks, avenged on their masters the blood they had caused to flow. A ci^-il war, in which no prisoner was spared, raged between the colonists and their riders, ending in 1865 with the wholesale massacre of the Manchus, Solons, and Shibos, the young women alone escaping. Popidous cities were changed to heaps of ruins, and according to the native accounts nearly 2,000,000 perished altogether. "VMien the Taranchi and Dungau rule succeeded to the Chinese no more than 130,000 people remained in the formerly populous valley of the Ili. THE UZBEGS. 233 The Uzbegs. Before the arrival of the Russians in the Sir and Amu basins the political suj^remacy in the civilised states belonged to the Uzbegs of TCirki stock, speaking the Jagatai or Uigur, one of the most polished languages of the Tatar family. But of the million Uzbegs dwelling in the Aralo-Caspian lands a large jjortion are certainly mixed with Iranian elements, as shown by their features, carriage, and character. From Ferghana to Khiva, and thence to Afghan Turkestan, the contrast between the different tribes calling themselves Uzbegs is often as great as between diiierent races. The most striking trait of those crossed with Persians is the full Iranian beard associated with the flat features and oblique eyes of the Turki Fig. 125.— Saete Type. race. The Uzbegs claim descent from the famous Golden Horde, so named apparently from the gold leaf covering the poles of the royal tent. But the Mongol and Tatar elements had evidently long been intermingled in their race. The famous Uigurs, from whom they take their present speech, form jjrobably the chief Tatar element in the Uzbeg populations of the present day. The national name means " freeman," unless it comes from one of their rvders of the Jenghis Khan dynasty, by whom they were converted to Islam early in the fourteenth century. But such as they are, the Uzbegs still present a marked contrast, on the one hand with the pure nomads of the country, on the other with the completely sedentary Aryans. Formerly more civilised and agricultural than at present, they have again partly returned to the nomad state, some even passing the whole year in a tent set up in the garden, and using their house as a granary. Still divided into tribes and clans, some bearing the same name as those of the Kirghiz, they reckon as jiart of their nation certain clans which might equally be claimed by the Kara-Kirghiz. Such are the Turuks, or Turks, of Ferghana, possibly the near kinsmen of those of like name who have risen to such historical importance farther west. Of all the Uzbeg tribes the Manghits, to whom belong the Khans of Bokhara, claim to be the oldest and noblest. They are zealous Sunnites, and nearly all the " saints," as well as the brigands, over nine- tenths of the entire popidation, are Uzbegs. Yet the MoUahs, or sacerdotal class, are nearly all Tajiks, especially in the Zarafshan district. Although the political masters of the country for centuries, the Uzbegs have remained honest and upright 234 ASIATIC RUSSIA. compared w-ith the Iranians, who form the bulk of the officials and tax-gatherers. The contrast between the character of the two races is illustrated by the legend of a princess, who had promised her hand to whoever of her two suitors should dig an irrigation canal across the Bek-pok-dala steppe. The Uzbeg set to work honestly, and continued to dig till he came to a cascade, which is still shown. But he lacked the time to finish the work. The Tajik took things more easily. Before the appointed day he had spread reed matting over the surface of the desert, and when the princess ascended her tower to see the waters of the canal sparkling in the Fig. 126. — PopvL.iTioN OP Fkrghaxa. Scale 1 : 8.000,000. n 1 iiiiiiiii'ri:iriii|iii|iiii ipii i|i|iiii!iirii "I ' llll'lll Illllll ^^M^':l 158' E. oFG 3 III Russians. Sartes. Tajiks Kara-Kirghiz. Sartes and Turkomans. (Galchas). Uzbegs. Kirghiz- Kazaks. distance he showed her his work glittering in the svm. The imsuccessful rival in despair hurled his spade into the air, and in its fall the instrument cleaved his head from his body. The Sartes, Tajiks, and Galch.\s. The loss of political power wiU probably tend to bring the Uzbegs into closer contact with the Sartes, and in some places even blend them into one nationality. The Sartes are a mixed people, in whom the Iranian element prevails. The term, however, has a social rather than an ethnical meaning, all the settled inhabitants of the towns and villages excejjt the cultured Tajiks being called Sartes, irre- spective of their origin. Some writers even include the Tajiks in this class, which would thus comi>rise all the civic population of Turkestan. " When a stranger presents himself and eats your bread call him a Tajik ; when he is gone you may 'l i/cUimiJ. St TA.nKS OF BOKHAEA, o! ILLiNu. THE SAETES, TAJIKS, AND GALCHAS. 235 Fig. 127.— A Tajik Mollak. call him a Sarte." Such is the local etiquette in the matter. As soon as the Kirghiz or Uzbeg nomad settles in a town his children become Sartes. The term is also ajjplied to the Mazang or sedentary Gipsies, as opposed to the Luli, or nomad Gipsies, and to the Kiirams of various stock — Uzbeg, Kazak, Kara-Kalpak — settled in the neighbourhood of Tashkend. Most of the Ferghana pooijle call themselves Kuram, or " confused," or " mixed," so conscious are they of their varied origin. The language of the Sartes varies with the locality — Turki in Ferghana and Kulja, Persian in Khojend and Samarkand. Representing the mixed element in these regions, the Sartes are increasing most raj)idly, and although now despised by those of pm-er race, are destined ultimately to prevail. The Kirghiz, making a play of words with their name, call them Sari-it, or " Yellow Dogs," and would feel dishonoured by an alliance with them. They have a general resemblance to the Jews in character, and even in features, and fidly deserve their name, if it really means " broker," although, according to Lerch, it has simply the sense of " citizen." Like the Jews, also, they are fond of instruction, and are far more enlightened than the Uzbegs. They are gradually tiu'uing to agricid- ture and reclaiming the uplands, and, according to Fedchenko, their colonies thrive best. The Aryan race is represented in Turkestan mainly by the Tajiks, kinsmen of those who, imder the name of Tates, dwell on the opposite side of the Caspian. The word Tajik, meaning " Crowned," seems to show that when so named the race held the political supremacy. It still belongs to them from the economic point of view, for most of the merchants, bankers, and landed proprietors belong to this class. In several districts they call themselves Parsivan — that is, Persians ; and they are really Iranians, differing but slightly from those of Persia, and even their sj^eech is but little afPected by Turki, Arabic, or Mongol elements. Nevertheless their frame is somewhat more massive than that of the Persian proper, while the tj'pe of features remains much the same. They have a long head and high brow, oxjjressive eyes shaded by dark eyebrows, finely chiselled nose, florid complexion, full brown hair and beard. Those of the Upper Oxus vaUey bear a striking resemblance to the Kashmirians. The Tajiks form evidently the intellectual aristocracy of Turkestan, where all who pride themselves on polite manners endeavour to imitate 236 ASIATIC RUSSIA. their speecli. But beueatli tlie exterior culture are concealed many social vices — a\'arice, rapacity, gambling, and licentious morals. The Galchas, agricultural highlanders on the western slopes of the Pamir, in Kohistan, Wakhan, Karateghin, Shignan, Darvaz, and Badakshan, are also of Iranian stock, but of a purer type than the Tajiks. Their chiefs claim descent from Alexander, and the people from the armies of the ilacedonian king, and they are noted especially for their broad head, the delicacy and beauty of their slightly arched nose, and firm lips. De Ujfalvy has met with some closely resembling the Celtic peasantry of Savoy. Of the five Kohistan tribes four are able to converse together, while the fifth, the Yagnaubs of the Yagnaub valley, have a distinct Aryan speech, unintelligible to the others. The Galchas contrast favourably with the Sartes and Tajiks in their simple habits and upright character. Amongst them hospitality is a sacred duty, and every village contains a house reserved for strangers. Slavery has never existed in any Galcha land, where all arc alike free and in the enjoyment of self-government. Although polygamy is authorised by their religion, they seldom have more than one wife. Still women are not con- sidered the eqvials of the men, and of the inheritance the sons take two-thirds, the daughters one-third only. The Tajik Mussulmans of Upper Turkestan have preserved some traces of the old fire-worship, and it was probably through them that certain practices associated ^nth this cidt have been propagated to the extremities of Siberia. During the feast of the fire or sun bonfires are kindled like those of the Bal-tinne in Ireland, supposed, like them, to purify all passing through the flames. The sick make the romid of the fire and pass over it thrice, and when too weak to do this they fix their gaze on the flames while being exorcised. Amongst most of the Galchas lights must not be blown out, and torches are kept burning roimd the cradle of the new-born and the couch of the dying. Here and there along the banks of the Panja, or southern branch of the Upper Oxus, are still to be seen certain towers attributed to the Zardushti, or Fire-worshippers. To the numerous races of this region have recently been added some Great Russians, Little Russians, Poles, and other Slavs. Though numbering scarcely a tenth of the population, the political supremacy of their race secures for them an influence out of all jDro^Dortion with their numbers. Yet, apart from the military element, the Russian colonists proper have hitherto played a very subordinate part in the development of the laud. The Cossacks have even become more assimilated to the Kirghiz than these to their conquerors. In many places they have adopted the dress and habits of the natives, even dwelling like them in tents. Nevertheless the Russification of these races has already begun at certain points, usually the farthest removed from Europe. To the Cossack soldiery occupying isolated stanitzas in the Tian-shan highlands have here and there succeeded free colonists engaged in reclaiming the laud. A peasant from the centre of Russia, sent in 1865 by his commune to explore the Issik-kid districts, settled there, and in two years was joined by a hundred others. Since then fresh colonies have been established in the Tian-shan valleys, and the work of the plundering Cossacks has BAKTEIANA, OR AFGHAN TURKESTAN. 237 now been replaced by a systematic cultivation of the soil. Groups of Eussian settlers are spreading regularly between the Irtish and Nariu vaUej's, and this line will doubtless be soon extended through Ferghana towards the Western Pamir valleys. The Russians ah-eady form, from Caucasia to the Urals and thence to the Tian-shan, a complete semicircle round the Turkestan populations, and this zone grows yearly broader and longer. Kirghiz and Turkomans, Uzbegs, Sartes, and Tajiks, enclosed within the compass of the advancing Slav popidations, must sooner or later undergo the fate of the Kazan Tatars, Chuvashes, and Mordvinians of the Volga. VII.— STATES OF THE AEALO-CASPIAN BASIN. I.— BAKTEIANA, OR AFGHAN TURKESTAN. The states or provinces of this region can have no well-defined frontiers. A plateau on the east, highlands on the south and western deserts form their natural limits, and these limits advance or recede with the abundance of the snows, the rich pastm-es, the progress of irrigation, the encroachments of the sands. For a portion only of its course the Oxus serves as northern fi'ontier to these Turkestan districts, here separating them fi-om Bokhara. Of the populations of the VTestem Pamir those in the north are regarded as gravitating towards Bokhara, those in the south towards Afghanistan. But above these minor states there is already cast the double shadow of the rival powers aiming at the supremacy in Asia. Behind Bokhara looms Russia, ah-eady mistress of that land ; beyond Afghanistan, England reigns supreme over the Indian peninsula, and the inhabitants of the intermediate region, although still enjopng a semi- independent status, feel none the less that their futui-e destiny is involved in the rivalry of these two powers. The diplomatic negotiations between London and St. Petersburg had in 1872-3 provisionally arrauofed that the northern limits of Afghanistan should include north of the natural frontiers formed by the Hindu-Kush and its western extensions, the districts of Wakhan, Badakshan, Kunduz, Khulm, Balk, and Maimene. The two states thus disposed of territories and peoples seldom even visited by European travellers, and still but partially explored. VThile seizing the strategic points in Afghanistan near the Indian frontier, England naturall}' seeks to extend this state northwards, and thus so far reduce the futirre domain of Russia. But Russia herself, pending the complete conquest and assimilation of the ah'eady-acquired possessions, can afford to wait. Geographically the Upper Oxus and aU the northern slope of the Iranian and Afghan plateau belong to the Ai-alo- Caspian basin, and the growing influence of the Slav power cannot fail sooner or later to unite in a single political group the various parts of this vast region. During several months of the year Afghan Turkestan is completely cut oif from Afghanistan proper, and thus remains exposed to the fi'ee advance of the Russian anns. The historical importance of this region is well kno^vn. Here are, west of the innnense semicircle of highlands and plateaux enclosing the Chinese Empire, the first dej)ressions affording a passage over the great " divide " between the north and VOL. VI. R 238 ASIATIC EUSSIA. soutH of the continent. Here passed pilgrims, traders, migratory tribes, and con- quering armies. Here converged the various civilisations, with their religions, customs, and products. Here crossed the great highwaj's of the Asiatic nations, all the more important at a time when the ocean highways were still unavailable for the commerce of the world. The routes connecting the Oxus and Indus vallej's have further the immense advantage over those between Tui-kestan and Persia that they nearly everjTvhere traverse cultivated and inhabited lands, and avoid the great waterless deserts. Hence large and opulent cities could not fail to spring up along the line of these main continental routes. Here have reigned mighty rulers whose estates have stretched from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the Siberian plains, and whose capitals coimted their inhabitants by hundreds of thousands. A rich harvest of discoveries may be anticipated in these Asiatic lands, destined possibly to throw light on many doubtful points in the world's historj-. And in this centre of gravity of the whole continent rather than at Constantinople may we not expect to see iiltimately solved the great problem of political equilibrium between Europe and Asia known as the " Eastern Question ? " "Wakhan. In the Oxus basin the easternmost state is "Wakhan, which is traversed by the Panja, or Sarkad, the southern branch of the Amu, for a distance of 150 miles from its source on the Little Pamir to the great bend of Ishkashim. But this extensive tract is so elevated, cold, and unproductive, that it is uninhabitable excejjt in the sheltered spots along the river banks. The lowest hamlet is no less than 9,000, and Sarkad, the highest, 12,000 feet above sea-level. A few scattered dwellings rising stiU higher are occupied in summer. The only trees growing in these uplands are ^villows and dwarf shrubs, and nothing is cultivated except pulse and barley. Fat- tailed sheep, however, besides 3'aks and other horned cattle, are reared, and the people take pleasure in the pm-suit of the wild goat, deer, OvispoK, and in falconry. The Wakhi people are of mixed Tajik and Uzbeg stock, speaking both a Turki dialect, which is their mother tongue, and Persian with strangers. Many of them are of a handsome tj'pe, with the deKcate featiu'es of the Iranians, nor are light hair and blue eyes by any means rare amongst them. All are devout Shiite Mussulmans, sending their tithes regularly to their spiritual head at Bombay, though still retaining traces of the old fire-worship and of customs distinguishing them from other Mohammedans. They show greater respect than most Eastern peoples towards their women, and the wife generally takes charge of the household expenditure. Forsyth estimates the population at about 3,000, which corresponds with a Russian document, according to which there are altogether 550 dwellings in Wakhan. The countrj- is said to have been formerlj' much more populous, and even recently Wakhi colonists have settled in Sirakol and Kashgaria. But the importance of Wakhan is obviously due, not to its inhabitants, but to its geographical position on the main route between the Aralo-Caspian and Tarim basins. Through this valley lies the easiest approach to the Pamir, followed of late years bj' Wood, Forsyth, Gordon, and others, probably in the footsteps of Marco Polo. Comparatively easy WAKHAN. 239 passes, used throughout the year by the Kirghiz and natives, lead southwards across the Hindu-Kush to Chitral and Kaujud ; that is, to the FjDper Indus basin. To protect the caravan trade from pillage, strongholds have been erected in this desolate Sarhad vaUey, and two well-preserved towers are still standing at Kila-panja, or u 2 240 ASIATIC EUSSIA. the " Five Forts," a few miles below the junction of the two streams from the Great and Little Pamir. Here resides the Jlir of "VTakhan, who, like all the other chiefs of this region, claims descent from Alexander the Great. "\Mien "Wood visited the country- in 1838 it was practically independent of Badakshan, a tributary of Afghanistan. Before 1873 the yearly tribute consisted of slaves, generally obtained by border raids. The constant warfare resulting from this system explains the depopulation of the land and the solitude of the Pamir pastures, formerly much frequented by the Kirghiz nomads in summer. Badakshan. Since 1869 Badakshan has been dependent on Afghanistan, sending it a j'earh' tribute of about £7,200 and 500 horses. But its geographical limits are so clearly defined that this state cannot fail to retain a certain political importance. It is separated fi-oni Chitral and Kafiristan by the Hiudu-Kush, here crossed by foot passes only, at elevations of over 16,000 feet above the sea. The area of Badakshan is estimated at about 8,000 square nules, and its population at 150, 000, concentrated mostly in the lower valleys sloping gently towards the Oxus. The Badakshani are nearly all Tajiks, Persian in speech, and Sunnites in religion. A few Fzbegs and other Turki peoples have settled in the interior, but on the whole the race has preserved the purity of its fine Iranian t}-pe. Badakshan is di^-ided naturally into two parts, an eastern section, bordering on Wakhan and traversed by the Panja, here trending northwards, and a western, watered by the Kokcha, or Kuchka, i.e. " Green " River, flo-«-ing to the Middle Oxus. Southwards runs the crest of the Hindu-Kush, crossed by the Nuskan Pass (17,000 feet) and the somewhat ea.sier Dora Pass (16,000 feet). The two natural divisions of the country are separated by an elevated spur of the Hindu-Kush rimning northwards to the high plateaux skirted bj' the Oxus. This ridge is usually crossed by a difficult pass over 11,000 feet high, connecting the Kokcha and Panja valleys, often blocked by snow, and from the end of autumn to the middle of spring exposed to the fierce east or " Wakhan" wind. The chief centre of population in this region is the village of Ishkashim, on the south bank of the Panja, where it turns north- wards to Shignan and Roshan. Ishkashim thus lies at the intersection of the natural routes riuming east and west and north and south, and acquires additional importance fi-oni the famous ruby mines situated 19 miles farther do^Ti the river. These gems, the more highly prized of which are of a fine rose-red tint, were formerly known as balas, or balais rubies, a word derived from Balakshan, a corrupt form of Badakshan. The Emir of Kimduz, having acquired possession of the mines by conquest, and being dissatisfied with the yield, seized all the inhabitants, and sold them, to the number of five hundred families, into bondage. TMien "Wood visited the district it was still almost deserted and the mines abandoned. But the works have since been rcsmned for the benefit of the Amir of Afghanistan. South Badakshan also possesses mines famous throughout the East, the turquoise and lapis lazuli deposits in the southern slopes of the Hindu-Kush, near the sources of the Kokcha, in the Lajurd, or Lazurd district, whence the terms BADAKSHAN. 241 InzuH and azure. Tu the black and white limestone rocks the mines open here and there irregularly about 1,600 feet above the river. But none of them run very far in, o'O'iug to the frequent subsidence of the galleries, none of which are propped up. The finest lapis lazuli occurs generally in the black limestone. Less valued Fig. 129.— East Badakshax. Scile 1 : 1,500,000. Cvf^erro.c* M Miles. are the ni/i, of a fine indigo colour ; the asmani, a light blue ; and the suvsi, of a greenish hue. The works have been frequently interrupted from wars and other causes ; yet the stones are always in the hands of the Bokhara, Kabul, and Kashgar dealers. The annual vield varies from about 1/2-jO to '2/^00 lbs. weight. The 242 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Ivokcha basin, one of the most remarkable in Asia for its mineral wealth, is usually known by the name of Hamah-kan, or "All Mines," for it also contains rich copper, lead, alimi, sulphur, and iron deposits, which have been worked from the remotest times. Copj^er and lead are likewise found in the momitains farther north, and ia the Hoja-Mohamnied chain, stretching northwards to the great bend of the Oxus. Several of the mountain torrents also wash down gold dust. Thanks to these resources and to the influence of the Greek artists of the Ilellenic period in Baktriana, the Badakshani have become the best metal-workers in the East. Badakshan is also exceptionally favoui'ed by its healthj' climate, the purity of its waters, its leafy vegetation and fertile valleys. Its apples, peaches, grapes, and melons are famous in all the surrormding lands. Its horses, too, are highly prized by the Afghan Government for their strength and sure-footedness, while its sheep Fig. 130. — Badakshan and Kunduz. Scale 1 : 3,600,000. 56° 50 Eof G C Perron , 60 Miles. supjDly a portion of the wool used in weaving the wonderful Kashmir shawls. Herds of swine also aboimd in the less popidous districts ; yet with all these resources the people remain mostly miserably poor, owing largely to the stiU prevalent feudal system, the devastating wars, the raids of the Kunduz Uzbegs, and the heavy taxes of the Amir of Kabul, aggravated by his local vassal. Till recently these princes were engaged in the slave trade, seizing even travellers passing through the countrj'. Theoretically " infidels" alone could be enslaved, but imder this term were included the Shiah heretics, and many good Simnites were often compelled by torture to confess themselves followers of Ali. However, the exigencies of trade relieved the Hindki and Jewish merchants from the risk of capture. In spite of ^^'ars, oppression, and slavery, the Badakshan Tajiks are described in flattering terras by the few travellers that have visited the land. They are generally courteous, respectful to their elders, and upright. The women, often of BADAKSHAN. 243 a very fair type, are attractive, indixstrious, good house\\'ives, and although Mohammedans, the poorer, at least, amongst them are not obliged to go about veiled, and enjoy free intercourse with their fi-iends. In Wood's time the capital of Badakshan was Jurm, or Jerm, a group of scattered hamlets with over 1,500 inhabitants. Faizabad, the old capital, some 30 miles to the north-west, and also in the Kokcha valley, was then a mere heap of ruins, with the walls of a fortress Fig. 131. — Bamian Pass axd Kunduz Route. Scale 1 : 2,500,000. still standing on a bluff on the left bank of the river. Faizabad has somewhat revived since it has again become the capital, yet in 1866 it had only four hundred houses. The country suffered much from the invasion of the Kunduzi in 1829, and in 1832 an earthquake destroyed most of the villages. Packs of wolves replaced the poj)ulation of many districts, and travellers did not venture to cross the land without escorts. The site is still unkno^^'n of the citj' of Badakshan, at one time the capital of the state, and often wrongly identified with Faizabad. It stood, probably, farther east in the Da.sht-i-baharak jjlain, about the confluence of the three rivers, Zardeo, Sarghilan, and Yardoj, or Badak- shan. Here is, at present, a suimner residence of the emir. In the western division of the coimtry rises a magnificent peak .south of the to^ni of Meshed, and known as the Takht-i-Suliman, or " Soliman's Throne," so called from a king who, according to the lecfend, took refuae here from the scorpions of the plain. A chain of hands, reaching from the base to the smuanit of the moimtain, passed his food up ; but the scorpions were not to be done, for one of them, concealing himself in a bunch of grapes, was passed up also, and thus contrived to inflict the deadly sting. The present caj^ital lies too much in the heart of the moimtains to become a large trading-place. Eustak, rendezvous of the Hindki, Afghan, and Bokhara EofG 30 lUles. 244 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Fig. 132. — Euixs OF Balkh and Mazar-i-sheuif. Scale 1 : 1,300,000. merchants, is better situated on the filain, some 25 miles east of the Kokcha and Oxiis confluence, and at the junction of the Kashgar, Chitral, Balkh, and Hissar caravan routes. KUNDUZ AXD BaMIAX. West of Badakshan, the region comprised between the Oxus and the continua- tion of the Hindu-Kush depends also on Afghanistan politically, but a sharp contrast still exists between the popidations of both slopes. The comjiarativelj'' easy passes connecting the Oxus and Indus basins have at all times attracted divers races towards Baktriana. Through this route the Aryan invaders passed in prehistoric times towards India. Alexander also crossed the Paropamisus, or Indian Caucasus, to annex Sogdiana to his empire. The ^Mongols and kindred races followed the same road from the north, and in subsequent times retraced their steps through these passes from the south. Here the Afghan Iranians have retained the predominance ; but in the north the Uzbeg Tatars have acquired the political supremacy, and in all the provinces west of Badakshan they now form the most niunerous element. Lastly, most of the passes, including that of Bamian, the most important of all, are guarded by the Hazarahs, Shiah tribes of Mongol stock, but, since the sixteenth century, of Persian speech. The Surgh-ab river of Kunduz, kno\^'n as the Ak-serai, in its lower course receives its first waters from the Koh-i-baba, or "Father of the Moun- tains." One of its head-streams rises at the Haji-kak Pass, not the lo^\-est, but the easiest of the "Indian Caucasus," and open seven months in the year. East of this pass, which is better kno^vn as the " Gate of Bamian," the Sui-gh-ab skirts the northern foot of the Hindu-Kush, and here the valleys of several of its tributaries also lead to passes over the main range. From the comparativelj' low Kauak Pass the Tndar-ab flows west to the Surgh-ab, and in a distance of about 130 miles between the Kauak and Haji-kak Passes, Markham enimierates sixteen others over the Hindu- Kush. Seen from the depression in which the Indar-ab and Surgh-ab approach each other, the range appears in all its majesty, from its dark base to its snowy peaks. The crest has an elevation of 20,000 feet, but ^\"itli depressions of 6,600 and even 67-50 EofG . 24 Miles. KUNDUZ AND BAMIAN. 245 8,300 feet interrupting the snow-line, which here runs with remarkable uniformity at an altitude of about 15,000 feet. Thi'ough the Ilaji-kak and Irak Passes the town of Bamiau communicates with the Helmand basin as well as with the Kabid highlands, while through the Chibr Pass it enjoys direct communication with the Gosband valley, forming- part of the Indus basin. Bamiau thus commands a great part of Afghanistan, and its strategic im2)ortance was at all times understood, as shown by the ruins of fortifica- tions belonging to different epochs, and succeeding each other on the cliffs and along the defiles of the valley. This town is supposed to have been the ancient Paro-Vami, while some, with Carl Hitter, identify it with the Alexandria ad Caucamm, foimded by the Macedonian conqueror. It acquired sj)ecial importance in the religious history of the Eastern nations. Amongst the ruins left by the Mongols after the destruction of the place in 1220 are numerous traces apparently of temples, as well as of sticpas, as those religious monuments in the form of towers are called, which are found in so many regions visited by the Buddhist missionaries. The place itself has been named But-Bamian, or Bamiau " of the Idols," from two rudely carved hmuan figures rej)resenting the divinity, Silsal (Sersal) and Shamama. These rock figures, known also as the Bed and White Idols, stand at a conspicuous point on the great highwaj^ of trade, migration, and conquest, and are so large that the caravans find accommodation in the openings let into the skirts of their robes. According to Burns they are 120 and 70 feet high respectively. The Hindus raise their hands in passing them, but others jDelt them with stones, and the lower portions have been partly demolished by cannon balls. Most of the paintings decorating the figui-es have disappeared, but the nimbus round their heads still remains. They are pierced within with stairs and recesses, and the adjoining rocks are also perforated in every direction. A whole people coidd put up in these " twelve thousand" galleries, which occupy the slopes of the valley for a distance of about 8 miles. Isolated bluffs are pierced with so many chambers that they look like beehives. Notwithstanding the pilfering going on for generations, coins, rings, and other gold and silver objects are still found here. Some cimeiform inscriptions have been discovered on the rocks, but most of the coins and medals, dating from the Mussulman period, bear Kufic legends. No traces have yet been met with of the recumbent statue of Buddha, 1,000 feet long, seen here by the Chinese Hwen-T'sang in the seventh century. Although belonging geographically to Turkestan, Bamian is nevertheless usually included in Afghanistan proper. It lies on the Surgh-ab, over 3,000 feet below the Haji-kak Pass, which is itself 12,385 feet above sea-level. The Ak-robat, or " White Caravanserai " Pass, immediately north of the town, and the Kara-kotal, or " Black Pass," in the Kara-koh, or " Black Moimtains," are both over 10,000 feet, yet accessible to waggons and even to artillery. Between the two runs a small but difficidt ridge known as the Dandan-shikan, or "Teeth-breaker." North of the Kara-kotal the road following the Khulm River traverses some formidable defiles, interrupted by pleasant vallej^s, the rocks skirting one of which are crowned with ruined forts showing the strategical importance formerly 246 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Fig. 133. — Saripul and SniBiRKHix Valley. Scale 1 : 400,000. 56 50 attached to this point. Altogether these northern slopes of the Indian Caucasus are more in%-iting and verdant than the rugged heights of Afghanistan. But the marshy plains at their feet, especially the low-lying Kunduz, or Ak-serai valley, are amongst the most unhealthy in Central Asia. " If you want to die go to the Kunduz," says the Badakshan pro- verb, and of 100,000 Badakshani forcibly removed hither by Mvirad Beg in 1830, all but 6,000 are said to have perished within eight years. The town of Kimduz itself, although capital of a state, even in the time of Murad Beg consisted merely of a few hiindred mud houses, some reed huts, and Uzbeg tents scattered over gardens, wheat-fields, and swamps. Talikhan, lying farther east at the foot of the range between Kunduz and Badak- .shan, seems to have been a far more important place. It held out for seven months against Jenghis Khan, and ISIarco Polo describes it as a large city and a great corn, fruit, and salt mart. The salt moimtains whence it drew its supplies lay to the east and south-east, especially near Ak-bulak ia Badak- shan. Here also is the Lattabaud Pass, followed by the caravans proceeding fi-om Kunduz to Badakshan and the Pamir. It commands a view of the Koh-i-ambar, a remarkably regular cone rising 2,660 feet above the plaias, which according to the legend was brought from India, and which is consequently said to grow none but Indian plants. The lion haunts the plaias stretching north of these hills, but he is met nowhere north of the Oxus. The population of Kunduz is esti- mated by the Russian officials at 400,000, or about 36 per square mile in a total area of some 11,000 square miles. Though not much for a country abounding in fertile and well- watered valleys, this is a vasth' higher proportion than prevails in the Russian possessions, on which account this territory, so conveniently situated at the gates of the Hindu-Kush, natiirally seems to the Musco^'ites the necessary C y'errQrt . 6 ililes. KHULM, BALKH, ANDKHOI. 247 complement of their Turkestan domain. Travellers sjoeak favourably especially of the Kimduz women, as excellent housewives, although held by the men in less consideration than their dogs. Khulm, Balkh, Andkhoi. Khulm, or Khnlimi, is not so large, but is relatively as densely peopled, as Kimduz, although not so well watered as that region. The Kvmduz, or Ak-serai River, fed by the snows of the Hindu-Kush and the Koh-i-baba, is copious enough to reach the Oxus, whereas the Khulra River, flowing from advanced s^nirs of the Kara-koh, is absorbed by irrigation works on entering the plains. But the geographical jjosition of Khulm, occupying the centre of the old Baktriana, is one of vital importance. Here converges the highway of Persia and India over the IBamian Pass, and here is the natural centre of the vast amphitheatre of highlands Fig. 134.^The Maimene Valley. Sctde 1 : 370,000. 35- 50 = ; Ma imene, , 55° 50 r-^AIni-ar' ''-■.— v-J' „ 55 45 J .4 • •■'■■■- '.-. -. ;■ «.>.. .^4' 1 ^k...^ 04" 5' '64'e5 tof G 6 Miles. and plateaux stretching from Meshed in Persia to Bokhara. Balkh, " the Mother of Cities," was formerly the converging point of all the great commercial highways of this region. But after its destruction by Jenghis Khan in 1220 it ceased to be the centre of traffic, and before the middle of the present centurj^ Khulm was the most important place in Baktriana. Its Tajik population of 10,000 had a large trade in skins of dogs, cats, foxes, and lambs. It is encircled by extensive gardens and orchards, and even the bed of the intermittent stream is periodically converted into a garden. The present town is a modern place lying about 5 miles from the ancient Khulm, now a heajj of ruins. Balkh, formerly so famous as an imperial capital and holy place, the city in which Zoroaster preached, later on a centre of Hellenic culture and of Buddhism, is now little more than a vast ruin. For a circuit of over 18 miles nothing is visible except heaps of bricks, enamelled tiles, and other debris. The marble temples seen by the j)ilgrim Hwen-T'sang in all their beauty, and whose ruins were admired by Marco Polo, have disappeared altogether. Even the few Uzbeg 248 ASIATIC EUSSIA. encampments and Tajik hamlets scattered over the phiin were completely abandoned after the \'isitation of cholera in 1872, and " when Balkh shall rise from its ruins," saj' the natives, " the world will soon end." Since 1858 Takht-i-pul, some 12 miles farther east, has been the political centre of Afghan Tui-kestan. But the urban popidation, according to Grodekov amoimting in 1878 to 25,000, has removed to the neighbouring sanctuary of Mazar-i-sherif ("Tomb of the Sherif "), famous even beyond the Hindu-Kush for the ceaseless miracles here wrought at the shrine of the proi^het Ali. Mazar-i-sherif, whose four blue minarets are visible in the distance, lies still within the limits of the region watered by the Balkh, or Dehas River, whose farthest head-streams rise in the Koh-i-baba and Sufid-koh. In the lowlands this stream, though still rapid, becomes a mere embanked canal, the Bend-i-barbari, or " Dyke of the Barbarians," which, after a Fig. 135. — Khaxates of Afghan Turkestan West of the Oxrs. Scale 1 ; 1,780,000. 56' 58' ii i ii rr fr,fe Ak tchi 56 EufG 65- 70° C l-'erron course of over 180 miles, runs dry in the gardens of Sujagird, north of Balkh. Whether Sujagird was a suburb of Balkh or an independent city, its ruins still cover a vast space, some 8 miles long, north and south on the road to the Oxus. Farther west other streams also flowing through Afghan territorj' fail to reach the Oxus, though their waters serve to clothe with verdure the oases around the towns of Ak-cha, Saripul, Shibirkhan, and Andkhoi, pcoiiled by Iranians, Turko- mans, and Uzbegs. Thanks to the abundance of its waters, the most flourishing of these places is said to be Shibirkhan, whose melons Marco Polo described as the finest in the world. When Ferrier visited it in 1845 it had a population of 12,000. Saripul had 3,000 in 1818, but being pent up by the hiUs in a cirque subject to malaria, it is a very xmhealthy place. The only trees flourishing in the Saripul and Shibirkhan valley are the saksaul and the tamarind, though a few plants have been recently brought from Bokhara. KHULM, BAJ.KH, ANDKHOI. 249 Next to ilazar-i-sherif the most populous to-wn iu Afghan Turkestan is And- khoi, ^rhich, according to Yambery, had 15,000 inhabitants in 1863. But most of them Tvere living in tents amid the ruins of a citj' encompassed by the desert. The ^laimene, a stream flowing through its gardens, has very little water in its bed, and this is so brackish that strangers cannot drink it. " Salt water, burning sands, venomous flies and scorpions, such is Andkhoi, and such is hell," says a Persian poet quoted by Yarabery. Yet its horses, whose genealogy the natives trace back to the steed of the Persian Hercules, Eustem, are renowned throughout Tatary, as is also the so-called ner or iiar breed of dromedaries, distinguished for their flowing manes, elegant forms, and great strength. Andkhoi also formerly sent to Persia those black lambskins known in Europeas "Astrakhans," but since the destruc- tion of the place bj- the Afghans in 1840 its trade in these articles has not revived. Maimene, lying amongst the hills, is watered by the same river Nari, which nearly runs dry in the gardens of Andkhoi. Its brave Uzbeg inhabitants long maintained their indejDendence amidst the rival claims of Persia, Bokhara, and Afghanistan, but they are now tributary' to Kabid, though soon probably destined to become an advanced outpost of the northern colossus at the thresliold of the Iranian jilateau. Here Maimene occupies an important strategical position, and according to Rawlinson, if Herat is the key to India, Maimene is the key to Herat. On the other hand, Grodekov asserts from personal knowledge that the route from Maimene to Herat is too difhcidt for military purposes. But however this be, Maioiene is the chief trading station between Herat and Bokhara, and commands several mountain passes, so that its possession would be a great prize in the hands of either of the rival powers contending for the mastery in Asia. In 1863 Yambery gave it a population of from 15,000 to 18,000, which more recent, but probably exaggerated, Pussian estimates raised to 60,000. But in 1874 it was besieged by an Afghan army of 10,000 and twentj' guns, which had already taken Saripul and Shibirkhan. The siege lasted six months, ending in the slaiighter of 18,000 of its inhabitants, since when Maimene has remained a decayed village exposed to Turkoman raids. The pojjidation of the whole khanate, estimated by Yambery at 300,000, is reduced bj- the Russian oflacers to 100,000. A brisk trade in horses, cai-pets, dried fi-uits, chiefly in the hands of the Jews, is carried on at the Maimene fairs. All the khanates between the Indian Caucasus and the Oxus are at present subject to Afghanistan, except that of Andlchoi, which is still semi-indeijendent. The geographical divisions have remained imaltered, and the ^-illage of Gurzivan and the small centres of the population in the Darzab valley, in the mountains south and south-west of Saripid, have preserved the title of khanate, though they have lost their autonomy. The Uzbeg natives are not required to render militarj- service, their Afghan masters fearing they might use their arms to recover their independence. But the weight of taxation falls aU the more heavily on them. According to Grodekov they are impatiently awaiting the arrival of the Russians ; but they do nothing for their own fi-eedom, and can scarcely defend themselves from the Turkoman marauders. Thus have a hundred years of oppression broken the spirit of these Turki peoples, fonnerly so renowned for their bravery. 250 ASIATIC RUSSIA. II.— MERV— THE SOUTITERN TURKOMAN.S. " Independent Tatary," whicli till recently covered suc-h a wide area, is now reduced to a single narrow oasis encompassed by the sands, and already menaced on three sides by the Russian arms. One famous spot alone still lies beyond the Afghan fi'ontier, or the territory directly or indii'ectly subject to Riissia. This is the ancient Merv of the Persians, the JIaur of the Uzbcgs, which occupies a strategic position of some importance, which disputes with Balkh the title of " Mother of the Cities of Asia," and which formerly called itself " King of the VniyeTse" (^S/iah-i-Jehany In the neighboui-hood are still to be seen the ruias of Antiochia Margiaua, or ilerv-i-mukan, as it is now called, the ancient Helleuic city foimded by Antiochus Soter. Dm-ing the Arab ascendancy Merv, like Samar- kand and Bokhara, became a great centre of learning, and the famous historian Yakut stiidied in its libraries. But the place fell a prey to the ruthless Mongols under Jenghis Khan, and its inhabitants, to the number, it is said, of 700,000, were led out of the city, told off in batches like beasts for the shambles, and all slaughtered in cold blood. Yet Merv revived from this fearful disaster, and was again a popidous place in 1795, when Murad, Emir of Bokhara, destroyed the embankment retaining the waters of the Murgh-ab in an artificial lake, ruined the town and its gardens, and restored a great part of the country to the desert. Some 40,000 of the people, chiefly siUs-weavers and other artisans, were removed to Bokhara, where their descendants still occupy a separate quarter. Merv passed subsequently into the hands of the Khan of Khiva, but since 1834 it has been held by the Tekke Turkomans, and its normal population now consists of 2,000 or 3,000 Uzbegs, while the Tekkes, Sariks, and Salors have camping groimds in the neighbourhood. It is the chief rall^-ing-point of the Turkoman nomads, who, according to Petrusevich, have 50,000 tents in the Merv oasis. But the views hitherto entertained regarding its great strategical importance have been consider- ably modified since the advance of the Russians along the northern face of the Attok. Mr. Donovan, correspondent of the Dailij Xews, imprisoned here for some weeks during the sxmimer of 1881, also foimd that Merv still remains the assemblage of wretched mud huts described by ConoUy in 1840. The opinion is now generally held that in theii- advance on Herat the Russians can safely leave Merv on the left until it suits their convenience to occupy it, meantime availing themselves of the easier and more direct route along the valley of the river T'ejend. The oasis of cidtivated land, which Strabo tells us was surrounded by Antiochus mth a wall 186 miles in circumference, stretches 75 miles north and south, with a mean width of 7 miles. Its fertility is famous throughout the East, and is maintained by 2,000 Tui-koman labourers, who attend throughout the year to the irrigation works. Great changes have taken place in the Merv country since the people have become more independent of the Khivan and Bokhara rulers. The reputation they formerly enjoyed amongst their neighbours is reflected in the local proverb, " If you meet a viper and a Mervi, kill the Mervi first, and tlicn crush the viper." THE SOUTHEEN TUEEOMANS. 251 Fearing to extend their foraj-s to the Oxus, now held by the Russians, and com- pelled to come to terms with the Persians, Daman-i-koh Kxirds, and Afghans, the Merv j)eople have mostly relinquished their marauding habits ; jjillage and miu'der are no longer held in honour as formerly ; and some moralising preachers have already ventui'ed to broach Fig. 136. — Meet and Sarakhs Oases. Scale 1 : 310,000. Merv Naoukala 37 the doctrine that there is no glorj' in slaughtering- one's neighboiu's. Houses have been built in the oasis, irrigating rills have been dug, and the zone of cul- ture extended. Fruit trees are being brought bj' the caravans fi'om Bokhara, trade has been somewhat revived, and dealers from Meshed and Bokhara are now settled in the district. Between Merv and Meshed the Tekkes and their allies, the Salors, press hard upon the Persian stronghold of Sarakhs (Sharaks), situated in an oasis watered by the Heri- rud, or Ten j en, the river of Herat. Like Merv and Maimene, this is one of the strategical points which, in the hands of a military power, may have the most vital consequences for the peoples of the Iranian plateau. The Jews of Meshed, trading with the neighboui'ing Tiu'kouians, have here erected a few mud houses ; but till recently the only dwellings were the so- caUed kirghas, wood or reed huts covered with felt. The sm-rounding oasis is no less productive than that of Merv, and the two places dispute the honour of having given birth to the first husbandman. West of Sarakhs, for a stretch of over 360 miles, the Turkomans have no towns properly so called. But some of their camping grounds on the banks of the streams erat /^^l^l' 61° 62° E.of G. C. Perron 30 Miles. 252 ASIATIC EUSSIA. are encircled by defensive walls, often enclosing thousands of kibitkas. Eight villages of Eshabad have each apopiilatiou of about 2,000, and before its capture by the Russians in 1881 Geok-tepe had some 15,000 inhabitants. Of the old Parthian towns nothing now remains, or at least their ruins have not yet been discovered. The city of Nissa, containiug the tombs of the Parthian kings, is said to have stood at the issue of a valley at the foot of the Daman-i-koh. It may perhaps be the present Nias, lying east of the Turkoman fortress of Kizil-arvat, or rather Kizil-robat — that is, the "Red Caravanserai" — in a district recently visited by Baker and Gill. Since the fall of Geok-tepe all the Tui'koman tribes of this region have practicallj' accepted Russian sovereignty. The limits of the Trans-Caspian territor}^ have been extended eastwards to Askabad, and every effort is being made to complete the line of railway from the Caspian to Bami, the new capital of this province. In -^-irtue of an imperial idcase issued in May, 1881, all the Akhal Tekke country is now incorporated in the Trans-Caspian territory, which is itself placed imder the supreme administration of the Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasus. It is also stated that in a short time Russia will accept the Protectorate of the Merv Turkomans, a delegate from whom visited St. Petersburg in the spring of the year 1881. It is obvious that the time is rajjidly approaching when the whole of the Tm-koman domain will fonn an integral jjart of the Russian Empire, whose southern limits will then stretch nearly in a straight line along the northern frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan from the south-east end of the Caspian to the neighbourhood of the Hindu-Kush. III.— BOKHARA. Still nominally independent, this state is one of those which must henceforth con- form their policy to the will of the Czar. "Without being obliged to keep gar- risons iu its fortresses or to j)ay the salaries of civil administrators, Russia nevertheless holds the routes leading through Bokhara to the Hindu-Kush. Hence, in advancing ixpon Merv or Herat, her armies can now di-aw their supplies as well from the Bokhara oasis as from the shores of the Caspian. On the other hand, the Bokhara Government, protected b}' its j)owerfid lord paramount, has no longer aught to fear from Turkoman or Afghan, and whole provinces have even been made over to it by a stroke of the pen. Thus by the will of Russia several states of the Upper Oxus - — Shignan, Roshan, Darvaz, Karateghiu — formerly depending partly on Kimduz or Badakshan, are now incorporated in Bokhara, and the Russians have thus become the masters of the Pamir passes. "VYithin its new limits Bokhara occupies a space about half the size of France, with a j^opidation of over 2,000,000.* It lies nearly altogether on the right bank of the Oxus, whence its old name of Trans- oxiana, or Maverannahr, a word having precisely the same meaning. The term Sogdiana is properly limited to the valley of the Sogd, or present Zarafshan, henceforth shared by the Russian and Bokhara Governments between them. The U2)land regions of the Bokhara Pamir, traversed by the Panja, Murgh-ab, and Surgh-ab, are nearly uninhabitable, or visited only in simimer by the Kirghiz • Area of Bokhara, 9o,600 square miles: probable population, 2,130,000. DAEVAZ AND KAEATEGHIN. 253 nomads. In the centre of the Pamir there are uo villages above Tash-kurgan, aud the Miirgh-ab (Ak-tu) may be followed for over 120 miles to the snow-line aud the Ak-tash Mountain without meeting a single hamlet. Below the Ishkashim bend in Badakshan the Panja, or Sarhad, continues to flow northwards to the Murgh-ab and other streams of the "Western Pamir, whose jmiction forms the Amu-daria. In this part of the Oxus basin are the three petty states of Shignan, Poshan, and Darvaz, which since mediasval times have been \asited by no Em-opean travellers. A'et the communications between Badakshan and the Upper Oxus valleys are fi-equent, aud iu 1875 Captain Trotter was able to send his native assistant, Abdul Subhan, to explore the course of the Panja for a distance of 96 miles below the Ishkashim bend to Wamur, capital of Poshan. On the other hand, the Hindu explorer, Subadar Shah, ascended the Oxus in 1874 from Western Badakshan to the Roshan frontier, leaving but a small aud unimjjortant gap between the two itineraries. Shigxax .\xd Roshan. Shignan (Shuguan, Shugdan) and Roshan, no part of which is probably lower than G,000 feet above the sea-level, have received from the lowlands the name of Zuchau — that is, " Land of Two Lives " — as if the piu-e air and water of this region insured to its inhabitants twice the average term of life. But there are few to enjoy this excellent climate. According to Wood there were in 1838 only 300 families in Shignan and 1,000 in Roshan, all Iranians ; but in 1873 the population increased altogether to 4,700 families, or about 25,000 souls. As in "Wakhan, the slave trade was the cause of the depletion of the land. In 1869 the prince still trafficked in his own subjects, an adult man or woman being valued at from £12 to £18, which was equivalent to 10 to 15 bidls, 5 to 8 j-aks, or 2 Kii-ghiz muskets. At the time of Forsyth's visit the two states had only one emir, residing at Wamiu' (Yamar), capital of Roshan. Kila-bar-panja, on the left bank of the river, consists of 1,500 houses. Wamur, like most of the other villages, stands on the right bank with a western aspect, which is here brighter and warmer than that facing eastwards. Darvaz axd Karateghix. Darvaz, bordering on Roshan below the junction of the Panja and Murgh-ab, is also peopled by Tajiks, speaking Persian and preserving many Mazdean traditions, although now Sunnite Mussulmans. In Darvaz the Oxus begins to trend westwards, and on its more sheltered banks the cultivated plants of the temperate zone, and even cotton, begin to appear. Nib-kumb, KHa-kumb, or Kaleh-i-kumb, the capital, is sometimes laiowu as the "Prison of Iskander," ha^-ing been traditionally built by Alexander of Macedon to confine the rebels. A garrison of 5,000 Bokhariots occujDies Darvaz, whoso inhabitants energetically resisted the conquest. Karateghin, separated from Ferghana by "the Alai-tagh range, is a romantic land of mountains, glaciers, waterfalls, traversed by the Kizil-su, or " Red River," VOL. VI. s 254 ASIATIC RUSSIA. S lilllilNHi-iilHliiill'ivl' which lower down is known successively as the Surgh-ab and Waksh (Vaksh, or Yakhsh). Here also the old Aryan population has held its ground, and the Galchas, although officially converted to Islam, have preser\cd their old customs HISSAE— THE lEON GATE. 255 retalliaig those of Zoroastriau tiiues, aud coutiuue to speak Persian. They are very industrious, engaged in weaving, metal-working, gold-washing, and rock-salt mining, while in summer they do a considerable trade with Kokan, Bokhara, and Kashgaria. But these pui-suits are insuiRcient for the support of the people, all of whom being proprietors, and reluctant to divide the land indefinitely, many are obliged to emigrate to the lowlands. All the water-carriers of Tashkend are natives of Karateghin, and many schoolmasters in Tiu-kestan are from the same place. Although the country has a mean elevation of 6,500 feet, Fedchenko estimates the popidation at upwards of 100,000, occupying over 400 kishlaks, generally surroim^ded by orchards. The prince, another "descendant of Alexander," resides in Garm (Harm), a cluster of 3-50 houses on the right bank of the Surgh-ab. In the neighbourhood is a copious hot spring of carbonated water. HissAR — The Iron Gate. The district of Hissar, lying west of Karateghia, was for the first time accurately snrveyed by the Russians, Vishnevsky, Mayev, and Schwarz, iu 1875. We now know that its eastern division is traversed by the Surgh-ab, or Waksh, flowiag to the Oxns below Hazret-imam in Kunduz. West of this river the country is divided into jjarallel zones by the broad valleys of the Kafij-nahan, Surkhan, and Shirabad-daria. Below Garm there are no towns except Kui-gan-tube on the right bank of the river. But a little farther down are the ruins of Lakman, which seems to have been formerly a considerable place, and where are the remaius of a bridge across the Waksh. Opposite the junction of this river with the Oxus stood Takhta-kuvat, associated with many local legends. Lastly, near the Patta- hissar Pass, on the caravan route fi-om Bokhara to Mazar-i-sherif, are the ruins of Termez, which stretched for 15 miles along the Oxus between the river Sarkhan and the ruins of ^luja, another city abandoned ui recent times, but stiU overlooked by a taR minaret. Termez was formerly known bj- the Tajik name of Gul-gida, the " Xoisy," the noise of its bazaars ha\Tng been heard at Baktra (Balkh), 54 miles off ! In the ruins of these cities many gold and silver objects, especially Greek coins, have been discovered, nearly all of which find their way to India. Gold-washing is actively carried on along the banks of the Waksh. All the towns of Hissar — Faizabad, Kafirnahan, Dushambe, Hissar, Karatagh, Eegar, Sari-chus, Yurchi, Denau, Baisun, Shirabad — stand on tributaries of the Oxus, and most of them near the region of snows and glaciers. The low-lying riverain tracts are here as unhealthy as on the Kunduz side, and to guard against the fevers and rheumatism caused by the sudden changes of temperature, the natives never lay aside their fur robes even in the height of summer. Hissar, which gives its name to the whole disti'ict, lies 96 miles north of the Oxus, in the upper valley of the Kafirnahan, and above the fever zone. Its inhabitants, estimated at 10,000, are chiefly engaged in the production of arms, knives, and hardware, exported by the pilgrims to Persia, Tui-key, and Arabia. Some of the damascened blades with chased gold or silver hilts are of exquisite workmanship, and unequalled even in Europe for the temper of the .steel. s 2 256 ASIATIC EUSSIA, The original Aryan population of Hissar has been mostly displaced by intruders of Turki stock. Tlie Galchas are still found in some upland viUages, and Faizabad, Kafirnahan, and a few more towns are peopled by Tajiks ; but elsewhere the Uzbegs and Sartes form the chief element. Hence, in Bokhara, Hissar is called Uzbekistan. West of the Hissar Mountains several broad valleys running in the direction of the Oxus are watered by streams whose jim.ction forms the Kashka. Here have been foimded some states which have often played an important part iu history. Shehr-i-sebs (Shakh-i-sabz), on a torrent flowing from Mount Hazret-i-Sultan at the southern issue of a pass over the Samarkand-tau Mountaias, is one of those capitals which for a tune acquired great influence in Turkestan. It consists in reality of two fortified towns, Kdab above, and Shehr below, formerly enclosed by one wall, but separated by extensive intervening gardens, whence their common Fig. 138. — Shehh-i-sebs and Kakshi. Scale 1 : 1,200,000. 39 -"^fmr 65°50' .Hourar 66'50' EOf G C Perron . 21 Miles. name of Shehr-i-sebs, or " City of Verdui-e." The larger of the two is Shehr, with a population of about 20,000 and 90 mosques ; KUab has some 15,000 inhabitants. In the beginning of the fourteenth century the village of Kesh, birthplace of Tamerlane, occupied the site of the present Shehr-i-sebs. The master of Asia, wishing to make it the capital of his empire, built many edifices here, but soon recognised the superior advantages of Samarkand, to which he transferred his residence. Of his palace, the Ak-serai, or ""White Castle," one of the "seven wonders of the world," nothing now remains except some towers and the huge brick pillars flanking the main entrance. Their walls are still lined with white and blue porcelain slabs, embellished with arabesques and Persian and Arabic inscriptions. Tradition jjoints to one of these towers as that from which fort)' courtiers sprang spontaneously after a paper which a gust of wind had blown from the hands of their dread sovereign. •"•■ERSlTyof! THE IRON GATE DETILE CN THE ICAIiSHI-DEEBEXT nOUTE. TOPOGRAPHY— BOKHARA. 257 The population of this district consists chiefly of Kenegez, Sunnite Uzbegs, as famous for their valour and endurance as the ■women are for their beauty. It required a Russian expedition to reduce Shehr-i-sebs in 1840, and its inhabitants have never tolerated slavery in their midst. Its gardens, watered by the Kashka, produce excellent fruits, and its annexation has been of great advantage to Bokhara, for the valle}- }-ields cereals, tobacco, cotton, hemp, fruits, and vegetables in abimdance, while the hiUs are rich in minerals. The salt mines of Hazar, south-west of Shehr-i-sebs, supply all the demands of Samarkand, and Hazar is also a large market for cattle and farm produce. One of the southern branches of the Kashka rises in a highland district fonnerly famous for containing one of the " wonders of the world." This is a defile 40 to 65 feet broad, and nearly 2 miles long, traversed by the route leading from Balkh to Samarkand by the Shirabad River, Shehi'-i-sebs, and the Samarkand- tau range. When visited by the pilgrim Hwen-T'sang this defile was closed by folding gates, strengthened with bolts and adorned with belfries. Eight centuries afterwards Clavijo, Spanish envoy to the court of Tamerlane, also passed through the " Iron Gate," but the artificial structure had disappeared, and the place is now called Buzgola-khana, or the " Goat Hut." But the nearest town retains the significant name of Derbent, like that of the Caspian " Gate." Topography — Bokhara. The important to^^•n of Karshi lies in a vast plain near the junction of the two main branches of the Kashka, which receives all the waters of the hiUs between Shehr-i-sebs and Derbent. The walls of Karshi have a circuit of over 5 miles, with a popidation of 25,000. It prodiices excellent arms and knives, exjiorted to Persia and Ai-abia, besides elegant ewers, and copper dishes artistically chased and embellished with incrustations of silver ; but its chief resource is derived from the surrounding oasis, in which tobacco especially is grown. The river is skirted by a fine promenade lined with the silver poplar, and the natives are reno^iied for their good taste, wit, and iutelligence. Karshi Kes at the convergiag point of the routes from Bokhara, Samarkand, Hissar, Balkh, and Maimene, within 60 miles of the Oxus, but separated from it by the sands in which the Kashka runs clrv. W here crossed by the route to Andkhoi and Mairacne, the river is guarded by the fortified town of Kilif. Hero the Oxus, confined on one side by rocks, is only 1,200 feet broad, but is said at some points to be 250 and even 330 feet deep. Lower down another ferry is defended by Karikji Fort on the right, and Kerki on the left bank. AU the middle course from Baktriana to Khiva has been assigned by Russia to Bokhara, this state being required to maintain the ferries and keep in good repair the caravan- serais on both sides. The popidation on the left bank consists chiefly of Ersari Turkomans tributary to the emir, and in return protected by him from the other nomads. After Kerki the onlj- fortified place possessed by Bokhara on the west bank is Charjui, on the direct route between the capital and Merv, and facing the 258 ASIATIC RUSSIA. former junctiou of tlic Zarafsliaii. rhai'jiu has become tlie entrepot of trade between Bokhara and Khiva. By seizing Samarkand and the upper and middle valley of the Zarafshau, Russia has placed at her mercy the city of Bokhara and all the other towns on the lower course of the river. The con.struction of an embankment to retain the waters of the Zarafshan in a large reservoir would sufBcc to dry up all the arable lands of Bokhara proper, and compel the inhabitants to emigrate. The extension of tillage in the Samarkand district has analogous consequences, a larger quantity of water being needed for the works of irrigation. Hence, since the Russian occupa- tion of Samarkand, Bokhara has suffered from a steadily diminishing .supph', residting in a gradual migration of the people up stream. Thus, apart from her immeasurably superior military strength, the mere possession of Samarkand insures for Russia the absolute control of Bokhara. Bokhara, " the Noble " (Sherif), as it is called on the coins struck by the emir, is not one of the fine cities of the East ; nor is it even one of the old cities of Sogdiana, although traditionally supposed to have been foimded hy Alexander. Its narrow, winding, and now nearly deserted .streets, its dllaj)idated and grimj' monuments, the sluggish waters of its canals often rvmning drj- altogether, its dreary and shadeless open spaces, do not recall the days when its emir was the mightiest ruler in Central Asia. The chief mosque is overlooked by a minaret 160 feet high, whence criminals were precipitated, and to which access was allowed only to the mollahs and executioners with their victims. The bazaars of Bokhara still attract traders from every quarter. At least two-thirds of the population, reduced from 140,000 in 1830 to 70,000 in 1880, are Tajiks. Turkomans and Uzbegs, more or less mixed with Iranian elements, are also numerous, while the Kirghiz pitch their tents in the open spaces as if they were in the middle of the desert. Russians likewise, and other Europeans in their wake, begin to show themselves in the streets, and the bazaars are occupied by man}' Jews and Hindus, or " JMultani," as they are here called, from the city of Multan, regarded in Turkestan as the metropolis of India. Bokhara is especially famous as a centre of learning. " Elsewhere the light descends from above ; in Bokhara it radiates upwards," as Mohammed himself certified when translated to heaven. At any rate an intense love of letters was here developed at various epochs between the ninth and fourteenth centuries. As in Spain, the mingling of Arjan and Arab cultures had the happiest resvdts for science, and the Iranians of Bokhara converted to Islam, and more or less assimilated to the Arabs, became the poets, doctors, and shining lights of Transoxiana. Bokhara, the " City of Temples," as the name means in Mongolian, is still a city of schools, containing, besides 360 mosques, over 100 medresseh, or colleges, where the pupils leani to read the Koran. But traditional methods and mere routine have killed science, and little now is taught beyond empty formidas. The fervid faith of this "Rome of Islam" has itself degenerated to a system of shams, veiling corruption and hollowness beneath the outward forms of worship. The decrees of the priesthood are faithfully observed ; the people always wear their winding- ■-'MY TOrOGRArHY— BOKHARA. 259 sliect as a turban rf>uufl the head ; they con the prescrihed prayers, regidarly visit the shrine of Baha-eddin, the national saint of Turkestan. But meantime friend- ship is poisoned by treason, espionage has become the chief instrvuuent of govern- ment, and vice in every form is installed at the gates of the mosques. Although far less flourishing than fomierly, the industry of Bokhara is still considerable, and the bazaars are stocked with many objects of local produce. Here ai"e fabricated the beautifid strijied cotton goods known by the name of alaja, Fig. 139. — Bokhara: Euixs in the Intekior of the Cut. excellent leather for the native boots and slippers, silken tissues " delicate as the spider's web." Nor has the Russian occupation of Samarkand or the rising com- mercial importance of Tashkend yet deprived Bokhara of its extensive inter- national trade. It stiU remains the great central mart between Nijni- Novgorod and Peshawar ; India and Afghanistan send hither their drugs and dyes, tea, earthenware, books, and especially the so-called kabti/i, or English wares. From Persia come other woven goods, arms, and books ; fi'om Merv, arms and valuable 260 ASIATIC RUSSIA. horses ; from Herat, fruits, wool, skins ; while through Khiva most of the manufactm-ed articles are forwarded to the Volga basin. Eussian merchandise is naturally foimd in the greatest quantity in the Bokhara bazaars, pui-chased, however, by the native dealers in Moscow, Nijni-Novgorod, or Orenburg, and by them brought to the great mart of the Zarafshan. The whole of this important traffic, valued at nearly £6,000,000, is in the hands of the Bokhara, Afghan, Hindu, and Jewish traders. In 1876 there was only one Russian merchant in the j)lace, and certain branches of commerce formerly monopolized by the Russians have now been appropriated by the natives. Hence Bokhara is threatened with ruin not bj- the commercial rivalry of Samarkand or other towns occupied by the Russians, but by the gradual loss of water from the uplands. The shifting dunes are already yearly encroaching on the oasis, filling the irrigation canals, and slowly changing the countrv to a Fig. 140. — Oasis of Bokhara. Scale 1 : 2,000,000. 4Cf .-.■V-ardahdz Romdao-; Kar-a-KouU<-', 'Pa'-kend ,: / Daikound ' iUrni-lthaul Sfypfic \ l\ C-i' 65' EofG C Perrcn . 2i Miles. desert. The destruction of the saksaul forests resulted in changing the firmly bound hillocks into moving sands, driven by the winds to the conquest of the arable tracts. The canals formerly derived from the Sir have also long been abandoned, and the time when the whole oasis will be restored to the desert is merely a question of calculation. Quite recently the rich Yardandzi territory has been invaded ; the Romitan district, west of Bokhara, was swallowed up in 1868, when 16,000 families are said to have been compelled to take refuge in Khiva. Tens of thousands have migrated in the same way to Samarkand and the Zarafshan valle5\ The city of Boldiara itself is seriously threatened, the pcoi)le awaiting the catastrojihe as an immutable dispensation of Allah, and imless the jjrogress of the dunes can be arrested their ruin is really inevitable. Thus in former times have perished Khoju-oba, 24 miles north-west of Bokhara, and the famous Ba'ikimd, 20 miles west of it. Bokhara suffers also from the bad TOPOGRAPUY— LuKUAlLV. 261 quality of its waters, aud from its uuhealthj- climate. Ulcers of all kiuds are very common, especially amongst the women, and in simmier one-tenth or even one- fourth of the people are attacked hy the Jilan'a medinensis, a parasite bred in the flesh of the feet or arms, and which can scarcely be got rid of except bv excision, a surgical operation skilfully performed by the local barbers. Besides the caj)ital several other to^vns have been founded in the Zarafshau valley, and especially in the Miankal district towards the Russian frontier. Here village succeeds village, and the whole country is a vast garden, still justifying the saying formerly applied to all the country between Tashkend and Khiva, that "a cat could pass along the roofs from town to town." The largest places Fig. 141. — Khita. Scale 1 : 26,000. Mosques. Palace of the Khan. Schools. C;u"avansei'ai. Baz.iar. ^__^_^_^^^.^^__^__ l.OSO Yards. Gibbet. in Miankal are Ziyaweddin, Tani-kurgan, and Kcrmineh, peopled chiefly by Uzbegs, who are here excellent agricidturists. Below Bokhara the chief station on the route to Charjui is Kai-a-kul, or " Black Lake." During the floods the river reaches this point, where a basin still known as the Denghiz, or " Sea," receives the overflow, which evaporates without cross- ing the sands to the Oxus. In 1820, when the water must have been far more abimdant than at present, Kara-kul is said to have had a population of 20,000, a number which would now inevitably perish of thirst in a district formerly irrigated by a network of canals fi'om the Oxus, Zarafshan, and Sir. The khanate of Bokhara still maintains its local administration and the outward forms of government. But the substance has vanished, the Emir, or " Head of the Faithful " and master of the lives of his subjects, having now to' 2G2 ASIATIC BirsSIA. reckon with ouc more powerful than hiniseli' — the Governor-General of Russian Turkestan. Even within his borders the Russian fort of St. George was erected in 1872 at Kala-ata, to guard the direct route between Tashkend and Khiva. Henceforth Christian stranger-s have to fear neither torture nor imprisonment, and even the much-abused Jews now find protection from extortion, while the slave markets are closed and the traffic in human flesh at least outwardlj' sup- pressed. The treaty of 1873 abolishing the slave trade also secm-ed to the Russians the free navigation of the Oxus, and the right to construct quays and Fig. 142. — A Minaret in Khiva. ■^-%:^~SiJ depots along its banks. All the towns of Bokhara were thrown open to Russian trade, the subjects of the Czar were authorised to exercise every indiistrj' on an equal footing with the natives, and were allowed to settle as landowners in the khanate. A Russian minister was also accredited to the emir's coiu-t, intrusted to watch over the execution of the treaty, while police regulations were framed to prevent any one from passing from Russian to Bokhara territory without the formal authori.satiou of the imperial Government. The jjolice of Russia thus penetrates farther than her armies into the heart of the continent, and through KHIVA. 213 her vassal state she can now make herself felt on the Kashmir and Afghan frontiers. Of the commercial advantages secm-ed to her by the treatj' .she has so far scarcely made any use. The Bokhara army, now useless for military purposes, has become a sort of irregular police, comj^osed of Sarte volunteers and Persian freedmen formerly sold b}- the Turkomans in the Bokhara market. The words of conmiand, framed by the Cossack deserter Popov, who became commander-in-chief, are delivered in Fig. 143. — Khiva: Exteriok of a MosauE. Russian, but mixed with some English and Tiaki terms, and the imiform of the troops is a distant imitation of that of the Indian sepoys. IV.— KHIVA. Khiva, like Bokhara, is also a vassal state ; but owing to its geographical posi- tion much more directly dependent on Russia. The right bank of the Amu, which separates the khanate from the Russian possessions, is lined with forts and fortilications, whence the troops of the Czar might in fom'-and-twenty hours reduce the whole oasis. Although the official area of the comitry is stated to be 23,000 square miles, with a population of 700,000, most of the land is a desert, blending imperceptibly with the irrigated tracts. Where the canals stop the 2G-i ASIATIC EUSSIA. last pcrmaiieut villages cease, so that the whole settled pojjulatiou is, so to say, groiqjed under the guns of the Russian strongholds. It took the Muscovites over one hundred and fifty years to finallj- subdue a region defended on the south, west, and north-west by almost impassable wastes. On two occasions, in 1703 and 1740, the khans had declared themselves Russian subjects, but the treaties Fig. 144. — Krasnovodsk B.iy. Scalf 1 : 210,000. of G 5S°55' 55° 5' to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. 6 Miles. had remained inoperative, and the people persisted in their hostility to the foreigner. In 1717 the Kabardian Prince Bekovich Cherkaskiy, sent by Peter the Great to give a body-guard to the khan, and thus j^rcpare for Russian supremac}', made a first cxjDcditiou against the coimtrj', which ended in a com- plete disaster. In 1839 the campaign conducted by Perovskiy, at the head of 20,000 men and a train of 10,000 camels, also ended in faihu-e. But a decisive osiryof I! KHIVA. 265 invasion took jDlace in 1873, when columns of troops from the Caspian, Orenburg, the Sir, and Tashkond overran the country from all quarters simultaneously. Khiva was taken almost without a blow, and the only serious struggles were not \\ath the inhabitants of the oasis, but with their temjjorary allies the Turkomans of the Caspian. Exj)editions are still from time to time sent against them to protect the Lower Oxus districts from their forays. Of all the cidtivated regions in Turkestan, Khiva best deserves the encomiums of the Eastern poets. Everywhere water flows in abundance, bordered by poplars, elms, and other trees ; the fields are encircled by avenues of midberries ; the white houses are like bowers buried in foliage and flowers ; the nightingale, scarcely elsewhere known in Tatary, here warbles in every rose-bush. The land, yearly renewed by the alluvia of the river, is inexhaiistiblj' fertile, producing magnificent fruits and vegetables. Its melons and j){stachio nuts are renowned even in Pekin, and the Emperors formerly exacted a certain quantity of them from their Kash- garian tributaries. Compared with that of other Turkestan coimtries the popula- tion of Khiva is consequently very dense, and might be doubled, or even tripled, without overtaxing the resources of the land. Khiva, caj)ital of this ancient region of Kharezm, or Khovare^m, a term said to mean " Lowlands," is scarcely more than an aggregate of mud hovels, between which wind narrow lanes, muddy or dusty according to the seasons. It is enclosed by a low earth wall lined with pools of slimy water. In the centre another earthen wall, 26 to 30 feet high, surrounds the citadel, residence of the khan and principal functionaries. Here also are the chief mosques and schools, none of which are architecturally remarkable except the edifice containing the tomb of the Mussulman saint Polvan, or Pehlivan, patron of Khiva. The western quarter, laid out in gardens and shady terraces, is a much more pleasant resort. Here the avenues intermingle with the canals, and above the crenellated walls of the citadel the dunes and minarets stand out against a background of blue sky. In the other quarters there are more cemeteries than gardens, the abodes of the dead here mingling with those of the living. Before the expedition of 1873 Khiva was one of the chief slave markets in Asia. Here the Turkomans sold their gangs of captives taken or purchased on the Caspian shores, and along the Persian, Herat, and Afghan borders. The most highly prized as labourers were the Russians ; all belonged mostly to the khan and other dignitaries, and many often rose to the highest positions in the State. On the arrival of the Russian troops in 1873 they revolted in several places, and j)lundered their owners' houses. The latter appealed to the Czar's generals, and presently the bodies of rebel slaves were dangling from gibbets set up in the very centre of the slave market. The captives were slaughtered wholesale, and to prevent the sur\avors from escaping, the Khivans sliced off their calves or the soles of their feet, filling the sores with chopped horsehair. The Russian Governor- General, who had been hailed by these wretched creatures as their liberator, tardily resolved to justifj' their hopes. The abolition of slavery was proclaimed, and the emancipated captives, to the number of 37,000, set out to return to their homes. 266 ASIATIC RUSSIA. But on the routes across the desert thousands fell victims to disease, exhaustion, and the Turkoman marauders. At the time of the Russian occupation the population of the city of Khiva was estimated at 4,000 or 5,000 souls, chiefly half-caste Uzhegs and Iranians, besides Sartes and emancipated Persians, speaking the local TurkI dialect. Most of the Khivans are of disagreeable and even harsh appearance, their features being generaUy marked by small-pox, cutaneous eruptions, ophthabuic affections, the abuse of opimu or "hashish. The children have a pleasant expression, but all vivacity disappears with age, and decrepitude soon sets in. Owing to the high Fig. 145. — Cheleken Island and Michael Gulp. Scale 1 : 810,000. E of G, 53° 10 53° 50 to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Teet. 32 Feet and upwards. 12 Miles. Persian caps worn all the year round, the ears of the men stand out from the head, a trait by which they may be recognised at a glance amongst the other Inhabitants of Turkestan. The turban is worn only by the clergy. The trade and industry of Khiva are unimportant. Some inferior silks and strong cottons are manufactured; but most of the woven and other goods are imported from Russia. In the bazaars may also be purchased some English cottons, and the green tea imported from India through Kabid and Bokhara. The chief merchants trading with Russia, Persia, and Afghanistan reside, not In Khiva itself, but iu Urgenj, the largest city of the khanate, 24 miles north-west of the KH[VA. 267 capital, near the left bank of the river. ITrgeuj is surrouuded by mud walls, and has a present popidation of 30,000. It was till recently known as Yani-urgenj, or " New Urgenj," to distinguish it from the Kmiia-urgeuj, or old town, destroyed by Tamerlane, and in the sixteenth century utterly ruined, when the Oxus receded farther east. The famous town of Kungrad, on the Taldik, is threatened by Fig. 146.— Hass.vn-kaleh Bay. Scale 1 : 3i»,00O, E oFa 54° 10 . to Ifi Feet. IG Feet and upwards 6 MUes.1 a similar fate, since this branch has dwindled to a slug'gi.sh stream lost amidst the reeds. Khojeili, at the head of the delta proper, over against the fortress of Nukus, has, on the other hand, acquired some importance through its traffic with the surrounding nomads. It is said to bo entirely peopled by Hajis, Mecca pilgrims, here called Hoja, or Khoja, whence its name. 268 ASIATIC RUSSIA. The Khan of Khiva, like the Emir of Bokhara, is in theory master of the hmd and life of his subjects, and tiU recently he made terrible use of his j^ower by the still remembered torture, " bug pits," sword, rope, and stake. But these horrors, on which custom had always imposed certain limits, are now at an end. The true master of the land is now the Russian resident, armed with the treaty of 1873, in which the khan declares himself " the humble servant of the Eniijcror of aU the Russias." To the Czar's subjects he grants free trade in all his cities, besides the free navigation of the Oxus, engaging to supply sites for the Russian depots, and to keep in good repair the artificial works executed by his conquerors along the course of the river. He recognises the jJi'ior claim of aU Russian creditors, and constitutes himself a debtor to the St. Petersburg Government in the siun of Fis 147. — AsHt'R-ABEH. Scale 1 : 770,000. C Pe'-roQ to IC Feet. IG to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. _^^.^_^_^_^__^— 12 Miles. 2,200,000 roubles, the last instalment of which will be paid off in 1893. If not, the whole khanate is pledged for the amount. Khiva is, in fact, a Russian province. though still imgarrisoned. v.— RUSSIAN TURKESTAN. The portion of the Aralo-Caspian basin actually annexed to Russia is far more extensive, though relatively more scantily peopled, than the tributary or less inde- pendent states. Lying more to the north, it comprises less fertile tracts, while the regions towards which Slav colonisation is being attracted are the farthest removed from Russia proper. Steppes 900 miles broad separate these New Russias from the mother country, and the forts and postal stations connecting the colonics with the Ural and Volga basins very slowly grow into villages and towns. Amongst the lands still lacking a sedentary population, the least Inhabited is the vast province stretching from the Caspian to the Aral west and cast, and from EUSSIAN TUEKESTAN. 2G9 the Ural to the Atrek river, north and south. This region, officially known as the " Trans-Casijian Division," depends on the government of Caucasia, and has hitherto been regarded as little more than a simjole coast district over against ISaku, whence troops and supplies are most easily forwarded. The only fixed establishments are a few fortresses and entrenched camps at the more accessible jooints on the coast, or the most convenient as centres of attack against the nomads of the interior. Some of the forts have already been abandoned, either for want of ^\■ater, their imhealthy climate, or utter uselessness. Several fortified stations on the Manghishlak peninsula are now a mere heap of ruins ; but the somewhat Fig. 148. — Valleys of the Atrek and GrROEN. Scale 1 ; 2,905,000. 57' -...^^S^fi^"- ^ C Per'^on to IB Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. 60 Miles. thriving fishing \allage of NLkolayev.sk has sprvmg up near Fort Alexandi'ov.sk, under shelter of the Tuk-km-agan headland. Of all the coast stations the most important is Krasnovodul;, the old Kizd-su, or " Red "Water," at the head of the peninsula running west of the Balkan Gulf. The neighbouring pastures, springs, and arable lands, besides the deep water of the bay, which scarcely ever freezes, insure to Krasnovodsk a lasting importance. "When the harbour works are completed a commercial city may here be rapidly developed. Although with scarcely 500 inhaibitants, Krasnovodsk took rank as a town in 1877. It has abeady some stone houses, a club, and a public garden, but stiU lacks perfectly fresh water. Pending the construction of an aqueduct, it depends for its supply on sea-water distilled by condensing apparatus. VOL. VI. T 270 ASIATIC EUSSIA. The naphtha wells, at the foot of the neighbouriug Little Balkan hills, have been hitherto little worked, tkrough fear of the maraxicliug Turkomans. But over 2,000 wells have been sunk in the island of Chelekeu, at the southern entrance of the Balkan Gulf. The naphtha is here remarkably pure and abundant. A single well, opened in 1874, pelded 100 tons per day, and the whole island maybe said to rest on a vast bitumiuous lake. Krasnovodsk also exports sulphur from the south of the Kara-boghaz, and salt fi-om the coast lagoons. It is now the chief outport of Khiva on the Casj)ian, having replaced Kohneh-bazar, lying farther south on the so-called Bav of Khiva. Lastlv, it may serve as the base of the military Fig. 149. — Samaekand. Scale 1 : 170,000. E ofG. 66°55' CPe . 3 Miles. operations which will probably ere long be dii-ected fiom the Caspian towards Merv, Meshed, or Herat.* The camp of Chikishlar, near the Bay of Hassan-kaleh, which receives the waters of the Ati'ek, is much less favourably situated. Troops can here be landed only on flat-bottomed boats, and the neighboiu'hood }-ields no suppKes of anj' sort. The desert begins at the very gates of the fort ; yet nimierous scattered ruins show that this region was formerly covered with towns and villages. One emporium has succeeded another in this south-eastern corner of the Caspian, which is traversed hy a great historical route leading from Western Asia to the Tian-shan * Yearly movement between Krasnovodsk and Kliiva (1874 — 7), 32 caravans, 5,164 camel-loads. Jleau annual \-ield of naphtha (1874 — 7), 3,840 tons. EUSSIAN TURKESTAN. 271 and China. Ahtmknn, wlio.'so ruins are now niarkcd by tlie Chunish-tepe, or " Silver Cliff,"' between the Ila.s.san-kaleh Bay and the nicnith of the Gurgeu, was an important mart in the eleventh and twelfth eenturie.s. Its destruction is said to have been caused by a rising of the Caspian, produced by the inundations of the (-)xus, when this river had resumed its course to the Balkan Bay. Abu.skun was successively replaced by Niui-mardan, a few miles south of the Gurg-en, and Alhom, at the entrance of the Bay of Astrabud. At present Ashur-adch, at the extremity of the long peninsula enclosing this bay, would be the natural harbour of these waters but for the extremely unhealthy climate of the surrounding low-lying swamjjy district. North of Chikishlar are Ah-tcpc, or the " White Cliff," and Fig. 150.— Samaukand : ArpiioAcu to the Citadel. G':uk-tq)e, or the " Yellow Cliff," round which the Yomuds have often jDitched their tents. In the Gurgen valley are the ruins of Jordan, the ancient Hyrcaniapolis, or " WoK Town," a name which passed to the whole country and to the Caspian itself, often called the Hj-rcaniau Sea. About 70 miles north-east of Chikishlar lies the ruined city of Mazduran, whose Persian name indicates its ijosition between Iran and Turan. According to the legend an archer endowed with suj)ernatural force shot an arrow from the banks of the Gurgen, which fell on the site of Mazdiu-an, and thus determined the limits of the two empires. The former importance of this place is shown by its extensive ruins, especially those of its aqueducts, which, at least in length, were surpassed only by those of the Roman Empire and the Ganges basin. One of these aqueducts traversed the district between the Atrek and its tributary the Sumbar, crossed the latter river, and after watering the plains of Mazduran discharged into the Caspian after a total cour.se of 95 miles. T 2 272 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Ferghana Basix — Topography. In the Russian possessions in Turkestan east of the Oxus is the Zaral'shan valley. After leaving the highlands this river is distributed by numerous irriga- tion rills over the Penjakent district, beyond which the system of canals is still farther developed to the north of Samarkand and to the south-west towards ISokhara. To these fertilising waters of the Sogol, or Zarafshan, the ancient Sogdiana was indebted for its fertilitj' in the midst of a vast semicircle of sands, and to the Fig. 151. — Samarkaxd: The Gur-emir Tomb op Tamerlase. same cause is due its present population of S0,000, of whom two-thirds are of Uzbeg stock. According to the Mazdean legend the Sogol is the second Eden, " created by the word of Ormuzd." Samarhvid, capital of this famous land, lies either on the site or close to the old city of Marcanda, whence its name, which, however, some refer to the Arab Saniar, who took the place and introduced the Moslem religion in 643. Residence of the Samanides from the middle of the ninth to the eleventh century, it became imder that dynasty " the asylum of peace and science," and one of the largest cities in Asia. It was defended by 110,000 men against Jcnghis Khan, but after its overthrow bj- him the population was reduced to 2o,000 families. Later on it became the centre of Tamerlane's vast empire, but it was again wasted by the FEEGHANA BASIN— TOPOGEAPHT. 273 nomads, and in the year 1700 had only one Inhabitant. The ruins of the oM city are the phiin and surrounding heights ; but its chief moniunents date from strerni over 271 ASL\TIC EUS?IA. tbe time of Tamerlane and liis successiors. From a distance are visible above its walls the large blue domes and tbe minarets of its mosques, its palaces and colleges. In the north-east it is conMnandcd by the Chupan-ata eminence, crowned with picturesque ruins and the tomb of a saint. At the foot of this hill the great canals of irriffation branch off in all directions. Since the Russian occuiwtion a new quarter has .sprung up west of the citadel, regularly laid out with streets and avenues radiating like a fan towards the desert. But we must visit tbe lab}Tinth of narrow lanes in the Moslem quarter to realise what Samarkand was in the days of its greatness. Its magnificent schools, now schools only in name, are unrivalled for the splendour of their architecture, tbe details of which betray the Persian origin of their first designers. Most of the palaces dating fi-om tbe Timur djTiasty are now in ruins, though the facades, towers, or domes of a few are still in good repair. The chief public square, tbe Eighistan, is flanked on three sides by the finest colleges in the jjlace, including the Ulug-beg, foimded in 1420, the renowTied school of mathematics and astronomy, which in the fifteenth century made Samarkand one of the holy places of science. The most magniticent mosque in tbe city and in all Central Asia is the Shah Zindeh, or " Ijiving King," so called from a defender of Islam, now buried in the building, but destined one day to rise again and reconquer the world to the faith of tbe Prophet. Tamerlane rests under the crypt of another mosqiie, the Gur-emir, on an eminence near the citadel, and still commanded by a minaret of rare elegance. In the ^^cinity are the tombs of bis wives, with inscriptions commemorating his fame. The citadel, comprising a whole quarter of the to■^\^l, and in which the Russians have set up their administrative and military bureaux, also contains mosques, tombs, and tbe old palace of the emir, now a hospital. In a court of this palace stands a large marble block, 5 feet high and 10 feet long, said to have been brought by Tamerlane from Brusa, and to have been used by him and his successors as a throne, and on it were also beheaded the unsuccessful pretenders to tbe sovereignty. The inhabitants of Samarkand, more than half of whom are Tajiks, are more zealous " believers " than those of Tashkend and other places in Russian Turkestan. According to the old saying, while Mecca is the " Heart," Samarkand is the " Head of Islam." At the same time their religious fervour does not prevent the people from driving a brisk trade with their Russian masters, though the chief traders are Jews, Hindus, and Afghans. Almost the sole Ladustry of the place is agriculture, which has converted tbe surrounding plain to a garden in the wilderness. The population has risen from about 8,000 in 1834 to over 30,000 in 1880, and, thanks to its happy situation in the neighbourhood of hills and healthy valleys, Samarkand cannot fail to become a chief centre of European civilisation in Turkestan. Ascending tbe valley of tbe Zarafshan by tbe fortress of Pcujakent, the traveller reaches Kohistau, tbe romantic land of the Galchas, with its gorges, cascades, and snowy ranges. Here are also some remarkable phenomena resembling those of volcanoes in eruption. The Kaiilagli Jfnuntain contains rh-h coal beds in TOPOGEAPHY. 275 combustion, emitting dense volumes of smoke and racpliitic gases, and at niglit casting a lurid light against the skj'. In the higher valleys of this region pastures, crops, and thickets fringe the river banks, or, as at Varzaminor, clothe the upland alluvial terraces forming the basins of di-ied-up lakes. The auriferous sands of the Zarafshan are now searched only by a few wretched gold-washers. The most popidous part of the oasis is that which forms a continuation of tho Miankal district of Bokhara. Here the villages foiiu almost a continuous town from Katti-kiu'gan to Penshambe, while the orchards present from a distance the appearance of extensive woodlands. Some 24 miles south-east of Samarkand lies the town of Urguf, noted for its heroic defence against the Russians. Farther south a defile leads over the Samarkaud-tau down to Shehr-i-sebs, while in tho Fig. 153. — 0.\sis OF THE Zarafshan. Scale 1 : 560,000. ■■■" '^L^' ■■ ■ ,'(*'' •~Pend|akenfli(J E.OfG, 66°Q0 67'2Cr C Pe'**fO^ . 30 Miles. north-east a large gap in the Eara-tau range is traversed by the route from Samarkand to Tashkend and the little river Jizak. This is the defile of Jilanuti, or of the " Snakes," so named either from its meandering stream or from the reptiles gliding amid its rocks. This important pass, guarded on the north by the town of Jizak, or the " Key," is one of the historic highways of Asia, and the scene of man)' a sanguinary struggle for the possession of Zarafshan or Sir-daria. West of it rises to a height of -100 feet a p^Tamidal slaty rock known as the " Gate of Tamerlane," though the two Persian inscriptions on its face make no allusion to this conqueror. The abundance of water flowing from the Tian-shau valleys to Ferghana gives to this basin a great agricultural value. In the heart of the mountains the Narin 276 • ASIATIC RUSSIA. flows at too great an elevation above the sea to pennit of any large towns springing up on its banks ; but on emerging from tbe ujojjer gorges and entering the north- east part of the Ferghana basin it soon becomes skirted with towns and villages. On its left bank stands the town of Uch-kurgan, in the midst of a fertile oasis. But the valleys watered bj' the torrents from the Toshktal Movmtains are more productive than the lauds fringing the northern bank of the main stream. They are laid out chiefly in gardens and orchards, while the oases on the left side are mostly iinder cereals. The banks of the Sir between the two zones are occupied by steppes. Hence the necessity of an exchange of commodities between the northern vallej's and the southern plains. Namangan is the chief town of the oasis lying at a distance from the river. It is a large place, with a bazaar containing one thousand shops, and with a cotton- spinning industrj' for the materials worn by the natives. As many as 300,000 sheep from the northern stei^jjes are yearlj^ sold at this place, and hero also are constructed wooden floats on which fruits, skins, and felts are sent down the Sir to Perovsk and Kazalinsk. In the neighboui'hood are rich naphtha springs and coal beds. Kasmn, Ij'ing north-west of Namangan, in a well-cultivated district, claims to be the oldest town in Ferghana, and its Tajik inhabitants ai'c the finest of their race in Turkestan. Chmf, on a stream flowing from the Choktal Mountains, is a busy place, producing knives almost as highly prized as those of Hissar. Of the mineral wealth in the neighboiu'ing hills the salt mines alone have hitherto been worked. On a steej) cliff on the right bank of the Sir stands Ak-si, at one time capital of Kokan, and famous for its melons. Populoiis towns are also situated in the valley of the Kara-daria, or " Black River," whose jimction with the Narin below Balikchi forms the Sir. Uzghenf, at the issue of the Tian-shan defiles, has become famous from the shrine of Ilaji Yusuf, the frequent resort of pilgrims. In this district is the frontier stronghold of Gulcha, guarding the Terek-davan Pass against the Chinese. Andijan, the chief town in this basin, though at a distance from the river, receives its waters through the irrigation canals. It is one of the pleasantest places in Ferghana, thanks to its shady gardens and deer park in the middle of the town. In the Kugaran valley, lying to the north-east, are the carbonated an^ sidphur hot springs of Jalabad-aj-up, much frequented by the Sartes. OhJi, south-east of Andijan, and on the same river Ak-bara, a tributary of the Kara-su, occupies the issue of a fertile and healthy valley leading to the Alai and Pamir. Here is the famous Takht-i-Suleiman (" Solomon's Throne "), a mountain the theme of so many Eastern legends ; and here, according to some, the wise king summoned the genii to execute his mandates, while according to others it was here that he was assassinated. The rock, which is much frequented by pilgrims, com- mands a superb view of the surrounding highlands. Several important towns are scattered over the Ferghana basin west of the Ak- bara valley. Naiikaf, Amran, and Assakch stand on a stream flowing to the plain south of Andijan. Farther on are Sharikhan, now much reduced, and Marghilan, in the midst of extensive gardens, at the point where the Shah-i-mardan Eiver, TOPOGRAPHY. 277 flowing from the Ala'i glaciers, ramifies into a nmnber of ii-rigating rills. Owing to its liealtby climate Marghilan has been chosen for the capital of Ferghana, although the new Eussian town springing np here lies some 9 miles from the old Sarte town. Besides gardening the chief industiy of the local Sartes is camel-hair, wool, and silk weaving. South-west of Marghilan is the picturesque ralley of the Isfa'iran, the entrance Fig. 154. — Fkom Kokan to SIarghilan. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Lore C Perron. 15 Miles. to which is guarded by the small town of Uch-ktirgan. Farther south is Vadil, a pleasant summer retreat on the Shah-i-mardan River, leading to the town of like name, one of the most frequented places of pilgrimage in Ferghana, thanks to the tomb of AH, which it claims to possess in common with so many other Moslem towns. 278 ASIATIC RUSSIA. The route from Tadil to Kohan, or rather KhiJcand, runs north-west bj' the foot oi the mountains to Rishtan, where it enters the plain, here watered by innumerable rills from the river Sokh. Kokan, formerly capital of the state of like name, which has now become the Russian province of Ferghana, is still the chief place in the countrj' in population, trade, and social cidture. It was founded about one hundred and fifty years ago, and is well laid out with broad, regidar, and tolerabl}' clean streets, with extensive gardens in some quarters. Its Tajik inhabitants speak a remarkably pure Persian dialect. They are skilled artisans, largely engaged in paper-making, weaving, minting, gold and silver work, and other industries. The coin most generally current in Turkestan, and even bej'ond the Tian-shan, is the koJion, worth about sixpence, and struck, as stated in the legend, in " Kokan the Delightful " (Kholmndi Latif). The inhabitants suffer much from goitre, and it was owing to this malady that the Russians removed the seat of Government from Kokan. Its bazaar is nevertheless still the best stocked in Russian Turkestan, containing, besides the local produce, English, Russian, Persian, and Indian wares, antique jewellery, and genuine works of art. The chief monuments are some mosques and the old palace of the khans, all in good style and in far better preservation than those of Samarkand. Khojend, the nearest town on the Sir to Ferghana, and the outlet for the produce of that province, has abeady become a double city. The Mohammedan quarters, occupied almost exclusively by Tajiks, stretch southwards along both banks of the Hoja-bakargan, flowing from the Alai range. In the north the steadily increasing Russian quarter occupies the space between the old towTi and the left bank of the Sir. In siunmer the heat is intense, the solar rays being reflected on the town from the white cliffs of the Mogol-tau, near the north bank of the river, while the atmosphere is charged with the dust from the surrounding steppe. The Hoja-bakargan often runs dry, and then the women have to fetch the water from the steep banks of the Sir. Khojend is one of the oldest places in Turkestan, and till recently occuj)ied an important strategical position near the old frontier, over against the fortress of Makhram, and not far from the ppint where the Sir bends north-westward to the Aral. South-west of it stands Irjar, scene of the decisive battle which in 1866 rendered the Russians masters of the land. Another place frequently mentioned in the records of the local wars is the fortified town of Ura-tepe, on the route between Samarkand and Jizak. Yani-chinaz, or New Chinaz, at the junction of the Chirchik and Sir, is a mere hamlet, which the Russians hoped to make a flourishing city at the head of the navigation of the river. But this project was defeated by the difficulties encoimtered in this part of the stream, and Eski-chinaz, or Old Chinaz, some distance off, still remains the more populous of the two. On the other hand, Eski-tashkend, lying to the north-east on the same route, has been abandoned altogether for the new Taskketul, the present capitalof Russian Turkestan, and one of the first cities in the empire. Covering a space as large as Paris, nearly 8 miles long and over 4 broad, Tashkend, or the " Stone Castle," consists mostly of low houses buried amidst a dense vegetation, in which the jiojjlars, willows, and other trees lining the canals are to^jpcd onl}' by TOPOGRAPHY. 279 the larger Paissian buildings and the domes of a few minarets. Although not standius on a large river, its site is well chosen on the banks of the Chirchik, 280 ASIATIC RUSSIA. which is abundantly suppliett with water from the snows of the Ala-Tau and the torrents from the Choktal Mountains. It occupies the centre of the irrigated and arable lands stretching from Samarkand to the valleys of the " Seven Eivers," while communicating by easy routes with the upper valleys of the Sir, Talas, and Chu. After its easy capture by Chernaiev numerous adventurers were attracted to the new city, which in 18G5 had become the centre of Russian authority in Turkestan. The Moscow and St. Petersburg traders thought they had discovered a new Eldorado, and rapid fortunes were at first made by wars and commerce. But the good times of wild speculation soon passed ; most of the Russians now resident here are the Government officials and the military, and trade has again fallen mainly Fig. 156. — Khojend and Neighbourhood. Scale 1 : 460,000. fl.Perrorv 24 MUes. into the hands of the native Sartes and Jews. Immigrants from every part of Central Asia are met in the streets of Tashkend, and there is even a considerable Nogai Tatar commimity from Caucasia. In 1871 — 5 the population was estimated at 82,986, composed of the following heterogeneous elements : — Sartes, 75,176 Russians in the Asiatic quarter, 1,289 ; Russians in the European quarter, -4,860 Uzbeg.s, 708; Kirghiz, 375 ; Jews, 293 ; Germans, 110; Hindus, 93 ; Afghans, 25 Chinese, 3 ; Nogais and others, 64. Now the population exceeds 100,000. The broad dusty streets lined with trees and white houses in the Russian quarter form a striking contrast with the low flat-roofed buildings of the Sarte districts. The roofs are generally composed of willow branches and reeds, covered TOPOGRAPHY. 281 with a layer of earth laid out in grass-plots or flower beds. In the dry season this answers very well, but during the heavy rains the whole framework is apt to eollaj)se, burying the inmates in its ruins. The houses have generally one story only, high buildings, such as jjalaces and mosques, rmming great risks from the frequent earthquakes. In summer the Russians retire to Zangi-ata and other pleasant retreats, where they camjj out like the Uzbegs in the midst of sj-lvan scenery, jjure air, fragrant flowers, purling streams, and warbling songsters. The growth of Tashkcnd has outstripped that of its industries, which are still mainly restricted to silk- weaving, tanning, the manufacture of china (c/iiiii), felt. Fig. 157. — Plain of Tashkexd. Scale 1 : 800,000. C. Pe and camel-hair goods. But the local artisans are no longer able to compete with the products imported from Russia, consisting chiefly of cottons, silks, hardware, wood and leather ware, and colonial produce. In return Tashkcnd exj^orts raw cotton and silk, and its yearly increasing exchanges now amount to about £4,000,000. Its trade was represented in 1873 by 82,500 camel-loads, 4,296 horse-loads, and 8,648 waggon-loads. Great efforts have been made by the Government to establish an international fair at Tashkcnd, such as those of Nijni-Novgorod and Irbit. Rut although recourse was even had to fines and other coercive measures, the commercial stream refused to enter the new bed prepared for it, and the site of the fair, about 282 ASIATIC EUSSL\.. 5 miles from the regular bazaar, opeued iu 1870, liad been comjjletely abandoned fciiir years afterwards. Tashkeud boasts of a club Avith a library of 10,0U0 volumes, an observatory, a school of sericultm-e, a normal school, and an Official Gazette containing useful documents on Turkestan and the sm-rounding lands. In 1879 a branch of the Russian Geographical Society was established here. But of the two other scientific bodies one was killed by official patronage, the other by official ojjpression. Cliinkent, north of the capital, occupies an analogous j)osition in a well-watered district, and is a place of some commercial and strategic importance, standing in the western issue of the broad opening between the Kara-tau and the Alexander range Fig. 158. — A Street in Tashkend. which connects the Sir and Balkhash basins. The kumis prepared by the Kirghiz ir the neighboiu'hood is said to be the best in Turkestan. Following the postal route from Tashkend to Orenburg along the southern foot oi the metalliferous Kara-tau range, the traveller reaches the old city of Ymi, where Timur founded a famous mosque in 1397 in honour of Hazret Yasavi, special patron of the Kirghiz. This mosque, which has suffered both from earthquakes and the Russian guns in 1864, was left unfinished by its Persian architect. Yet, such as it is, this vast ruin, the most sacred spot in Central Asia, stiU produces an imposing effect, especially when seen from the stcp2Je, towering with its square masses above the ruined walls of the town. This region of Tatarv is a laud of TOPOGRAPUY. 283 ruius. Numerous fortresses, formerly defencliug the fords of tlae Sir, are now al);uidoued, and the plains are strewn with kur»ans. Otntr, on the Sir south of Turkestan (Yasi) witnessed the death of Timur in 1405, and the site of Suran, or iSavrun, another ruined city west of the same place, was till recently marked by two elegant minarets. The ancient Ak-incchcd, or " White Mosque," on the Lower Sir, takes its present name of Pcromk from the Russian General Perovsky, who captured it in 1853, and made it a military station, round which a new town has sprung up. Standing at the head of the old delta near the Yani-daria branch, it lies on the direct route fi'om Persia through Khiva to Siberia, and is doubtless destined one day to become a great commercial cmporimu. Meantime its trade is less active than that of Kazalinsk, on the main branch of the Sir. This town, formerly known as Fort No. 1, succeeded in 1855 to Ra'im, at the mouth of the river, as the military station of this district. It lies in a cidtivated and well-watered tract at the intersection of the main routes from Orenburg to Tashkcnd, and from Herat through Khiva to Yekaterinburg, and has already become a thriving trading-place. On the Lower Oxus there are nothing but military posts such as Petro- Alexandrovsk and Nukus, commanding the banks of the river, or villages such as Chambai, mostly deserted in sununer, in winter often crowded by thousands of Kara-Kalpak nomads. The now desert tract between the Sir and Oxus, for- merly watered by the Yani-daria, was at one time dotted with nimierous towns, of which Yani-kend, or " Newcastle," was still standing when Gladishev passed this way in 1742. In the Kirghiz steppes stretching north of the Aral Sea Turgai and Irghiz are small towns, deriving some importance from their position as centres of administration. They are stations gladly hailed by the traveller after his long and weary journey across the sands and steppes. Along the northern foot of the Tian-shan there stretches a zone of cultivated lands comparable to that of the western slope, but containing no large towns since the massacres that have changed most of the Hi basin to a wilderness. Auli-ata, on the Talas, the first post occu2iied by the Russians east of the Kara- tau, although not yet ranking as a town, does a brisk trade in wheat and cattle. About 9 miles farther north are the ruins of Tiunkent, also on the Talas, and 30 miles higher up are the far more remarkable ruins of a vast structure, whose blocks of red sandstone, 6 or 7 feet long, cover a space of nearly 8 acres. They are said to have been hewn for a Buddhist monastery, though the Chinese traveller Chang-Chun, who visited the place in 1221, speaks of a " red stone town." He also mentions the great tmuuli " disjDOsed like the stars of the Great Bear," and known to the Kirghiz as the " Seven Moxmds," although there are sixteen altogether. The region stretching east of Auli-ata along the northern slope of the Alexander range is the country of the " Thousand Sjjrings " mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim Hwen-T'sang, and where was established the kingdom of Kara- kitai, or " Black China," by many supposed to have been one of those kingdoms of "Prester John," long sought for in Abj'ssinia, Caucasia, and Central Asia. 284 ASIATIC EUSSLV. Here rims the great historical route between China and the "West ; but the cities founded along this route by one conqueror were overthrown by another, and nothing now remains but ruins. Such is Tolnnak, the old capital of the Kipchak state, 16 miles above the new Tokmak, centre of the chief Russian colony in the valley on the route leading through the Kaslek Pass to Verniy. This place, now capital of the province of the " Seven Eivers," is the old Almati, dating as a Russian town only from 18G7. Consisting of separate quarters gradually approaching each other, it presents quite a Siberian aspect with its broad streets, low wood or brick houses, and Russian sign-boards. Yet the population is far from being exclusively Russian, including re23resentatives of nearly all the Central and Northern Asiatic races, besides Afghans, Mordvinians, Chuvashes, and Chere- missians. Trade is mostly in the hands of the Chinese, who have several indus- trial establishments here. Veniii/ is the depot of the copper utensils of Russian manufacture used by all the inhabitants of Central Asia as far as the confines of Tibet. North of it are the village and fort of Iliisk, giiarding the passage of the river and the routes to Kulja and the territory of the "Seven Rivers." In the latter region the most populous place is the city of Kopal, at the northern foot of the Zungarian Ala-tau, and on the river Kopal, which is lost in the swamps some 60 miles south of Lake Balkhash. Lepsiiisk, chief town of the Lepsa valley, is a thriving place, and ITJarskaya, beyond the Sassik-kul and Ala-kid Lakes, docs a considerable trade with the nomads. Sercjiopol, the old Aya-guz of the Tatars, is conveniently situated on the Aj-a-guz, flowing to the east end of Lake Balkhash. Lastly, in the heart of the Tian-shan the centre of Russian civilisation is Karahol, nearly 10 miles from the eastern extremity of Lake Issik-kul. So long as the Slav population of the coimtry was limited to Cossack detach- ments settled here as military colonists, every Russian village was the scene of di'unkenness and excesses of every sort. Instead of cultivating their own gardens the Cossacks plundered those of their neighbours, cutting do'nm their orchai'ds f(jr fuel. So far from civilising the Kahnuks, thej' gradually became assimilated to those nomads, not in their honesty, but in the rudeness of their manners. To give themselves grand airs they sjjoke Mongolian like them, as if their Slav origin were a mark of inferioi'ity. But the free immigration of the Russian peasantry has entirely changed the system of colonisation, which is now making- rapid progress. The mir, or communal system, has penetrated into these fertile valleys, where Russian is replacing Mongolian cultm'e, though many years must pass before the land can be as extensively culti\ated and peopled as formerl}'. Everj'where are visible the remains of towns and Buddhist monuments, the traces of canals, funeral mounds, many of which contain gold vases incrustated with precious stones. Kulja Basix — Topography. East of Verniy the river Hi waters the fertile province of Kulja, which before the terrible events of 1869 is said to have had a population of 2,500,000. But KULJA BASIN— TOPOGEAPHY. 285 after the massacres the country was changed to a vast necropolis. On all sides nothing is A-isible but canals choked or changed to swamps, abandoned fields, wasted forests, towns and ^•iUages in ruins. Ascending the lU valley beyond the fort of Borokhudzir and the forest of dnarf ehns planted by the Chinese, piles of stone mark in succession the sites of tlie towns of Tiu-gen, Jar-kend, Ak-kend, Khorgos, Alim-tu. The walls and towers of .some old fortresses are still standing, but through the Fig. 1.59. — KrLJA AXD Neighbocring Mines. Scale 1 : 1,500,000. ^:^^:ymi^f^^^'r:^^m'^^ breeches nothing is visible except heaps of ruins half concealed beneath the rank vegetation and roots of trees. The city, founded by the Chinese in 1764 as the capital of the province imder the various names of Hi, Xew Kidja, Manchu Kulja, Hoi-j-uan, pre- sents a woeful spectacle. Thewalls of the forti'ess are still standing ; here and there is seen a dilapi- dated tower ; sculptured gateways and walls covered with frescoes contrast with the confused masses of debris; while in some places the ground is strewn with bleached bones. After the Taranchi but- chers had done their work the streets of 111 were choked with 80,000 bodies of their victims, and even in 187G the only symp- toms of revival were two or three houses occupied by Dun- gans. Bayandai, farther east, said to have had 150,000 soids, has now nothing but a few frag- ments of walls ; but the little town of Suidun, Ijnng north of it, is still inhabited. Old Kulja, known also as Tatar Kulja, !Pfin-yuan and Ku- ren, standing like Ili on the right bank, is the present capital ; but it enjoyed this position before Ili itself. Like all the towns built by the Chinese, it forms a regular square sm-rounded by a high crenellated wall, broad enough on top to serve as a carriage drive. Two main streets leading to the four gates intersect each other at right angles, thus forming four smaller squares of equal size, and themselves subdivided into others by streets and lanes. But although laid out by the Chinese, VOL. VI. u EoFG. Lead. SilTer. ILirble. Graphite. Copper. Coal Mine. Abandoned Iron Foundry. Abindoned Gold- ■vrnshing. i ♦ 21 Miles. C. Perron Coal Bed. Iron Ore. Manganese, Coal-fieldr. 286 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Kulja retains the appearance of a Turkestan city in tlic arohitecture of its monu- ments, and in its bakcd-carth houses covered with clay roofs like those of the Uzbegs and Sartes of Central Asia. The Dungans and Chinese of this place do a considerable trade, and even possess some industrial establishments, mills, and the like. But the marbles, iron, sulphur, coal, and other minerals of the neighbouring hills are little worked. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans, and amidst the numerous mosques there are but two Buddhist temples besides a Roman Catholic chapel, served by French missionaries, and, siace the Muscovite occupation, some Russian churches. The Russian Government having occupied Kulja only pending the pacification of the coimtry by the Chinese, the Slav colonists have not been authorised to settle in the country. A few soldiers, traders, and travellers have been the only Eui'opeans Fig. 160. — DispL-TED Terkitort in Kolja. Scale 1 : 6,500,000. CPerron 120 JUles. in the Hi valley, in the midst of its Tatar, Kalmuk, Taranchi, Dimgan, and Chinese inhabitants. After tedious diplomatic negotiations a treat}- was at last ratified in August, 1881, in -vdrtue of which Russia restores to China the Kulja territory as far as the river Khorgos, but retains a strip of land for the settlement of those who may become Russian subjects within the year. The threatened war having thus been averted, it is probable that other settlers from the "West will now also begin to make their api3earance in the fertile valleys watered by the affluents of the Upper Hi. On the streams in this part of the Tian-shan high- lands there are no more to^^^ls or villages, but the numerous rivers show that the country was formerly well jaeopled. In the valley of the Tekes, south-east of Kulja, are the ruins of an ancient capital of the Mongol khans, now known to the Kirghiz as the Ak-kurgan, or " "White Mound." Buildings belonging to diverse civilisations still give evidence of the struggles formerly engaged in for the ADMIXISTRATIOX OF TUEKESTAX. 287 Fig. 161. — Chinese Tvpe, Kllja. possession of this magiiiticcnt region. In the valley of the Kash are seen many idols and blocks bearing- Tibetan inscriptions, and near Khorgos, east of Kuija, stands a mosque, in its style resembKug those of Samarkand. Administration of Turkestax. Most of Russian Turkestan consists of pastures, desert, and other waste lands, the arable space being estimated at present at no more than one-fifteenth of the whole area. But although the water supply is less abundant than formerly, the rivers now flowing to saline basins or unhealthy marshes might be utilised in reclaiming vast tracts from the desert. Estimating such tracts at- about one-sixth of the whole Aralo-Caspian region, this woidd still represent an area larger than France, and sufficient to support 40,000,000 people. Most of the required irrigation works would also consist of restorations of older systems. The banks of the Sir north and west of Bokhara, and nearly all the .space between the two main arteries, were formerly under cultivation, and the stepj)eof "Hun- ger " has borne this name only since the sands have invaded the ariks, by which it was at one time fur- rowed in all directions, and which it is now proposed to repair. The lands brought under irriga- tion give excellent results, even imder the rude system jjractised by the natives. All the oases laid out as gardens support one or more toT\Tis, and it is by gardening rather than by ordinary tillage that the people chiefly live. In the Bok- hara plains the gardens are seven times more extensive than the land ipiaer crojjs, which occupy large spaces only on the slopes of the hills. The cotton crop, which has considerabh* increased of late years, is valued at 50,000 tons, of which two-thirds come from Bokhara. This plant grows as far as Kazalinsk, on the Lower Sir, but the Asiatic fibre is much inferior to the American, and is also prepared in such a slovenly way as to exclude it altogether from the West European market. The quantity exported to Russia rose from 677,000 roubles in 1858 to 5,513,000 in 1867. Silk has made still more rapid progress, the export to Russia having increased fi-om 69,000 to 1,273,900 roubles between the same years. The Bokhara crojj alone now amounts to about "2,500,000 lbs. In some districts the mulberry is the ordinary tree everywhere lining the hedges and fields. The native wool is very coarse, and so badly sorted and washed that it is useless except r 2 288 ASIATIC EUSSIA. for weaving inferior elotli. Yet some of the carpets are remarkable for their strength, and esiiccially for the beauty and originality of their designs. They are woven by the Turkoman women under the guidance of a matron, who traces the design on the sand, counts the number of threads, and selects the colours and shades. The camel-hair fabrics, also very solid, have replaced linen for sacking, soldiers' blouses, and other piu'poses. But the chief wealth of the comitrj^ is its live stock, A'alued altogether at 100,000,000 roubles. The fat-tailed sheep supply a large quantity of the tallow required for local consumption. The Kirghiz yearly export to Russia about 500,000 roubles' worth of wool, while the sale of the animals themselves all along the line between Troitzk and Semipalatinsk amounts to 3,500,000 roubles. The Ku'ghiz derive an annual revenue of over 5,000,000 roubles from their horses, and altogether the "balance of trade" is in favour of these nomads as against their Eussian masters. Yet the live stock is diminishing from the effects of cold, storms, disease, and other causes. The importation of corn into the steppes has also fallen off, owing to the increasing poverty of the nomads. In the province of Turgai the cattle are said to have been reduced in the winter of 1879-80 from 800,000 to 50,000. In theory the soil of Turkestan cannot be held absolutclj-, the right of posses- sion existing only so long as it is kept under cultivation. If allowed to lie fallow for thi-ee years it reverts to the State, which again disposes of it to whoever is willing to jiay the tax. The land incapable of tillage may be said to be common property, all having unrestricted right to its pastures and timber. The cultivated land is inherited from father to son without the intervention of the State, except where it is enjoyed in usufruct, as with the rrtA-;// lands, whose revenues belong to religioixs or educational bodies. The State allows the o^Ticrs the right to a certain quantity of water for irrigation f)urposes, but may regulate the rotation of the crops according to the greater or less abundance of the sujiply. Comprising so many desert tracts and so few inhabitants and towns, the adminis- tration of Russian Turkestan presents special dilRculties, Owing to the absence of any common centre, the people easily escape from the direct control of the autho- rities, and tiU recently many were able to maintain their independence, thanks to their nomad life and the vast regions over which they roamed. The sedentary populations also occujDy the territories farthest removed from the centre of the empire, and if left to themselves they would soon form new political groiqjs without much regretting their release from the Slav j'oke. The annexation of these lands to Russia is a question of brute force, and has its justification neither in the sjmipathy of the people for their conquerors, nor in any resemblance in origin, speech, culture, habits, or customs. In everj' respect the racial antagonism is complete, But for the ultimate goal of India, and, perhaps, China, the Russians would never have cared to penetrate much beyond the banks of the Ural and the shores of the Caspian, Central Asia is meantime held in military tenure. Hence the necessity of con- necting tliis region with European Russia by means of good highways. The small trade and resources of the Aralo-Ca.spian provinces arc far from sufficing to RAILWAY PROJECTS. 289 pay tlie cost and maintenance of a great line of railwav, and tlie requirements even for a greatly increased traffic would still be met by the caravan service across the natm-al routes of the steppe and desert. The new lines now projected are accord- ingly mainly intended to connect Tatary ^'ith Eussia, and secure the absolute ascendancy of the Czar in Central Asia. For such a purpose the rivers and seas of the land are of little u.se. The Oxus no longer flows to the Caspian, while the Aral and its affluents are navigable only for light craft and for a part of the year. The cost of this navigation ali-eady far exceeds the miKtary and commercial ad\antages to be derived fi-om it. Hence the project of a trimk line to connect Tashkeud, Samarkand, and Bokhara fldth the European railway system. This line Fig. 1G2. — Projected Kailway Lines is Westers Asia. Scale 1 : W.iXiO.OOO. 50 C--^ '■'^«gaidi"ct-.„_ ■"H^St^":.'/'" S(tefJ^ei^ EoPG C PeTpp Open. In PrcgTess. Enssian Projects English Projects . 900 Miles. has already l\v anticipation been named the " Great Central Asiatic," and hopes are entertained that some day the trade of India may be attracted this way. But this question of the futm-e trunk line to India is affected by political rivalries. The Russians on the one hand, the English on the other, have a national interest in looking at things fi'om different points of view ; and the line oscillates between north and south according to the nationalit)' of the engineers. To the projects of Lesseps and Baranovsky, favoured by Eussia, are opjiosed those of Ilochstetter and Eawlinsou, more convenient for Austro-Hmigary and England. But viewing the question from the higher standpoint of the general interest of mankind, apart from the political balance of the states struggling for exclusive sway 290 ASLiTIC EUSSIA. in Asia, it must be confessed that the best route is that which follows the most direct line fi'om the great centres of trade and popvdatiou in Eui-ope to the Ganges basin. This line is ob^-iously that which, starting from Calais and Ostend, wiU ere long connect the Atlantic seaboard with Constantinople, and Constantinople idtimately with India through Xandahar and Kurachi. To this line the Caucasian might be connected by a junction or branch line. "With the north Eussia will also possess one of the great highwaj's of the world's trade, rimning from the Yolga to the Hoang-ho basin by the historic route through the Zimgarian depression. Thus the projected Tm-kestan lines must always remain subordinate as comiecting links between the two great trunk lines from Eiu'ope to India and from Eussia to China.* However useful it may prove from the commercial point of view, the Tm-kestan line will at all events have no great physical difficidties to overcome. The chief obstacle occurs at Orenburg itself, its western terminus, where the Ural Eiver will have to be crossed by a bridge over 1,330 feet long. The " Black Sands " north of the Aral will not prove so difficult as was formerly supposed, the dunes being here separated from each other by level tracts rimning south-eastwards right ui the direction of the line. Another route crossiug the Emba morass follows the Ust-urt depressions and the plains of Khiva, ascending the Oxus valley towards Afghan Turkestan and the passes in the Indian Caucasus. Other projects consist in turn- ing the Kara-kmn desert on the north, with a junction to the future Siberian system via Troi'tzk and Yekaterinburg. The section from Orenburg to Tashkend might probably be laid down for £8,000,000. But bej-ond that point towards the Indian frontier many serious difficulties present themselves, nor have any prelimi- nary surveys yet determined the best route through Baktriaua and over the Hindu- Kush. The government of Tm-kestan is jorn'oly militar}'. The Governor-General, known to the natives as the " Yarin-i^adishah," or " Half Kiug," di.sposes of royal powers over his subjects. He is at once the head of the administration, commander- in-chief of the military forces, plenipotentiary of the Czar m aU dijjlomatic relations with the neighbouring lands. His salarj' is fixed by no regidations, dejjending entirely on the will of the Czar. In order to increase his power the Siberian provinces of Semirechinsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk, and Semipalatinsk have been attached to Turkestan, which is now nearly as extensive as the ^^•hole of European Eussia. The various pro^-inces are administered on the model of the Jlussian govern- ments, with such modifications as are occasioned bj' the preponderance of the military element. The governors of the provinces are named by the Minister of War, and assisted by a pro^'incial coimcil chosen by the Governor-General. At * Eespoctlve length of the pi-njectej lines of railways and navigation hetwccu London and Calcutta ; — Miles. By Calais, Constantinople, and Kandahar ..... 5,470 „ Ostend, AVarsaw, Baku, and Teheran 5,880 „ ., Orenburg, and Taslikend .... 6,480 „ Brindisi, Alexandretta, and Bassorah 0,885 ,, ,, Suez, and Bombay 7,200 ,, the Cape of Good Hope 12,870 FINANCE. 291 the head of the " circles " is a prefect, who is responsible for the taxes and the maintenance of i^eace. At the same time the autonomy of the tribes is not altogether ignored, and their usages are respected so far as is comjjatible with the general interests. The Kirghiz, groiiped in aiik of from one hundred to two hundred families, and in larger communities known by the Russian name of ro/ost, or " bailiwick," choose their own elders and judges for all tribal affairs. The Uzbegs, Sartes, and Tajiks of the towns also appoint their akmk a I, or "white beards ; " but this privilege depends on the will of .the Governor- General, who may set asid^ any of the elected magistrates. Hence the urban elections have mostly become a mere formality, and all the military, administrative, and judicial functions may be said to be practically in the hands of the Russian officer of highest rank in 'the Turkestan cities. Freedom of worship is absolute, and the absence of persecution has had much to do with the diminished zeal of the Mussuhnans. Public instruction is still but slightly aj)preciated by the j)eoi3le, and in the whole of Turkestan there are scarcely more than 5,000 Moslem children receiving a regular education. Secondary instruction is represented by the medresse/i, or "colleges," where little is learnt except the reading of the Koran. In some of the primary schools the Russian language is already taught. The chief source of expense is the army, which averages 30,000 men, but which, as in 1880, may be raised to 80,000. All supjjlies have to be drawn from Russia, a distance of 2,400 miles, and the consequence is that the Tm-kestan budget always shows a yearly deficit of from 2,000,000 to 10,000,000 roubles. The expenditure is about four times the income, and three-fourths of this expenditure are absorbed by the army. The land tax, which gives rise to great waste, jDroduces about 1,275,000 roubles, and the whole revenue scarcely exceeds 2,500,000 roubles, while the expenditure averages 8,000,000 roubles. The income of the khanate of Kokan alone amounted, before the Russian conquest, to 2,290,000 roubles. CH^VPTER IV. SIBERIA. I.— SIBERIA. IBERIA Is emphatically the " Land of the North." Its name has hj some et^^nologists been identified with " Severia," a term foimerly ajjjjlied to various northern regions of European Russia. The city of Sibil-, which has given its name to the whole of Xorth Asia, was so called only by the Russians, its native name being Isker. The Cossacks, coming from the south and centre of Russia, may have natm-ally regarded as pre-eminently the "Northern Land" those cold regions of the Ob basiu Ij'ing beyond the snowy mountains which form the " girdle of the world." Long before the conquest of Sibir by the Cossacks, this region was known to the Arab traders and missionaries. The Tatars of Sibir were Mohammedans, and this town was the centre of a great fur trade. The Russians themselves had constant relations with the inhabitants of the Asiatic slopes of the Urals, and the Novgorodians were acquainted with the regions stretching " beyond the portages." Early in the sixteenth century the Moscow Czars, heirs of the Novgorod power, called themselves lords of Obdoria and Kondiaia ; that is, of all the Lower Ob basin between the Konda and Irtish confluence, and the station of Obdorsk, imder the Arctic Circle. Their possessions — that is, the himting grounds ^-isited h\ the Russian agents of the Strogonov family — consequently skirted the great river for a distance of 600 miles. But the Slav power was destined soon to be consolidated by conquest, and such is the respect inspired by force that the successful expedition of a Cossack brigand, on whose head a jDrico had been set, was supposed to have led to the discovery of Siberia, although really preceded by many A^isits of a peaceful character. Even stUl the conquering Yermak is often regarded as a sort of explorer of the lands beyond the Urals. But he merely established himself as a master where the Strogonov traders had been received as guests. Maps of the Ob and of the O.stiak country had already been jniblished by Sebastian Mmister and by Herberstein a generation before the Cossacks entered Sibir. The verj^ name of this to\TO is marked on Munster's map. PROGEESS OF CONQUEST AND DISCOVERY. 293 Progress of Conquest axd Discovery. In 1579 Yermak began the second iilundering expedition, whicli in two years residted in tlie caj)ture of the capital of the Tatar kingdom. When the conquerors entered Sibir they had been reduced from over 800 to about 400 men. But this hauclfid represented the power of the Czars, and Yermak could sue for pardon, with the offer of a kingdom as his ransom. Before the close Fig. 163. — West SiEEraA, accokdixg to Hereeestein. of the sixteenth century the land had been finally subdued. Sibir itself, which stood on a high bluff on the right bank of the Irtish, exists no more, ha^'ing probably been swept away by the erosions of the stream. But 10 miles farther do^\-n another capital, Tobolsk, arose, also on the right bank, and the whole of the north was gradually added to the Czar's dominions. The fur trappers, more even than the soldiers, were the real conquerors of Siberia. Nevertheless, many battles had to be fought do\^-n to the middle of the seventeenth century. The Bm-iats of the Angora basin, the Koriaks, and other tribes long held out ; but most of the 294 ASIATIC EUSSIA. laud was peacefully acquired, and jjennancntly secured by the forts erected by the Cossacks at the junctions of the rivers, at the entrance of the mountain passes, and other strategic points. History records no other instance of such a vast dominion so rapidly acquired, and with such slender means, by a handful of men acting mostly on their own impulse, without chiefs or instructions from the centre of authority. Even China allowed the Cossacks to settle on the banks of the Amur, though the treaty of Nerchinsk required the Russians to withdi-aw from that basin in 1689. But during the present centm'y they have been again attracted to this region, and the Government of St. Petersbm-g is now fully alive to the advantages of a free access by a large navigable stream to the Pacific seaboard. Hence in 1851 Miu'aviov established the factory of Nikolaievsk, near the mouth of the Amur, and those of Mariinsk and Alexandrovsk at either end of the jjortage connecting that river with the Ba}' of Castries. Dm-ing the Crimean war its left bank was definitely secm-ed by a line of fortified posts, and in 1859 a ukase confirmed the possession of a terri- tory torn from China in time of peace. Lastly, in 1860, whUe the Anglo-French forces were entering Pekin, Russia obtained without a blow the cession of the region south of the Amur and east of the Ussuri, stretching along the coast to the Corean frontier. And thus was completed the reduction of the whole of North Asia, a territory of itself alone far more extensive than the European continent. In other respects there is, of course, no point of comijarison between these two regions. This Siberian world, where vast wildernesses still remain to be exi^lored, has a foreign trade sm-passed by that of many a third-rate European seaport, such as Dover or Boulogne. Embracing a thirteenth part of the dry land on the surface of the globe, its jDojDulation falls short of that of London alone ; it is even more sparsely peopled than Caucasia and Tm-kestan, having little over one inhabitant to 1,000 acres. Accurate surveys of the physical features and frontier-lines are still far from complete. Only quite recently the first circimma^-igation of the Old ^^'orld round the northern shores of Siberia has been accomplished by the Swedish exjilorer, Nordenskjold. The early attempts made by Willoughby, Chancellor, and Burrough failed even to reach the Siberian coast. Hoijiug later on to reach China by ascending the Ob to the imaginary Lake Kitai — that is, Kathay, or China — the English renewed their efforts to discover the " north-east passage," and in 1580 two vessels, commanded by Arthur Ket and Charles Jackman, sailed for the Arctic Ocean ; but they never got beyond the Kara Sea. The Dutch succeeded no better, none of the voyages imdertaken by. Barents and others between 1594 and 1597 reaching farther than the Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya waters. Nor were these limits exceeded by Hcndrich Hudson in 1608. This was the last attempt made by the navigators of West Europe ; but the Russian trader^ and fishers of the White Sea were familiar with the routes to the Ob and Yenisei Gulfs, as is evident from a map jjublished in 1600 by Boris Godimov. However, sixteen j'ears after- ^^•ards the navigation of these waters was interdicted imder pain of death, lest foreigners shoidd discovfr the way to the Siberian coast. PROGRESS OF CONQUEST AND DISCOVERY. 295 164. — SAKH.A.I.IX, ACCORDING TO L.\ PeROCSE. Scale 1 : 11,110,000. The exjjloration of this seaboard had thus to be prosecuted in Siberia itself by meaiis of vessels built for the river navigation. In 1648 the Cossack Dejnev sailed with a flotilla of small craft from the Kolima roimd the north-east extremity of Asia, passing long before the bii'th of Bering through the strait which now bears the name of that navigator. Stadukhin also explored these eastern seas in search of the islands full of fossil ivory, of which ho had heard from the natives. In 1735 Pronchishehev and Lasinius embarked at Yakutsk and sailed do-mi the Lena, explor- ing its delta and neighbouring- coasts. Pronchishehev reached a Fig point east of the Taimir jieiiin- sula, but failed to double the headlands between the Lena and Yenisei estuaries. The expedition begun by Laptiev in 1739, after suffering shipwreck, was continued overland, resulting in the explora- tion of the Taimir peninsula and the discovery of the Xoi-th Cape of the Old World, PHny's Tabin, and the Cheluskin of modern maps, so named fi-om the pilot who accompanied Pronchishehev and Laptiev.- The western sea- board between the Yenisei and Ob estuaries had already been surveyed by Ovtzin and Minin in 1737_9. But the problem was already being attacked from the side of the Pacific Ocean. In 1728 the Danish navigator Bering in the ser\-ice of Eussia, crossed )Siberia overland to the Pacific, whence he sailed through the strait now named from him, and by him first re- iso Jiiaes. vealed to the "West, though known to the Siberian Cossacks eighty years previously. Even Bering himself, hugging the Asiatic coast, had not descried the opposite shores of America, and was uncertain as to the exact position of the strait. This point was not cleared up till Cook's voyage of 1778, and even after that the Sakhalin, Yesso, and Kiirile waters still remained to be explored. The shores of the mainland and islands were first traced bj- La Perouse, who determined the insular character of Sakhalin, and ascertained the existence of a strait connecting the Japanese Sea with that of Okhotsk. This completed the general survey of the whole Siberian seaboard. 29G ASIATIC EUSSIA. Tlie scientific exploration of the interior began in the eighteenth century with Messerschmidt, followed h\ Gmelin, Muller, and Delislc do la Croyere, who WATER HIGHWAYS— POETAGES— HIGHLANDS. 297 determined many important physical points between the j^ears 1733 and 1742. The region stretching beyond Lake Baikal was explored by Pallas and his associates in 1770 — 3. The expeditions, interrupted by the great wars following on the French Revolution, were resimied in 1828 by the Norwegian Hansteen, whose memorable expedition in companj' with Erman had such imjjortant results for the study of terrestrial magnetism. "While Hansteen and Erman wore still prosecuting tlieii- labours in every branch of natural science, Alexander von Humboldt, Ehrenbcrg, and Gustav Rose made a short visit to Siberia, which, however, I'emained one of the most important in the history of science. Middendoril's journeys to North and East Siberia had also some very valuable results, and were soon followed, in 1854, by the " expedition to Siberia " imdertaken by Schwartz, Schmidt, Glehn, TJsoltzev, and associates, extending over the whole region of the Transbaikal to the Lena and northern tributaries of the Amiu-. Thus began the uninterrupted series of modern joui-neys, which are now being systematically continued in every part of Siberia, and which promise soon to leave no blanks on the chart of that region. The work of geographical discovery, projierly so called, may be said to have been brought to a close by Nordenskjold's recent dotennination of the north-east passage, vainlj'' attempted by Willoughbj', Burrough, and so many other illustrious navigators. "Water Highways — Portages — Highlands. A large portion of Asiatic Russia is no less uniform than Russia in Europe itself in the general features of its relief. East and west of the Urals alike there stretch vast plains or rolling praii'ies offering no obstacles to free migration. To traverse Siberia from end to end the sole difEcidties man had had to contend with were the boiuidless distances themselves, the severity of the climate, dense forests, and swampy wastes. Instead of arresting their progress, the great streams were the natural highwaj's by which the Cossacks were enabled to overrun these solitudes as far as the Pacific seaboard. Owing to the slight elevation of the land the main river basins merge imperceptibly with each other, and Cossacks and natives alike generallj' followed these routes in their migratory movements, warlike or peacefid expeditions. Hamlets, -s-illages, towns, have thus .sprung up along the river banks wherever productive lands invited colonisation. From the Ural to Yakutsk, a distance of about 6,000 miles, the contiuuous water highway is broken only by two portages, the first between the Ob and Yenisei basius, the second between the latter and that of the Lena. On leaving the Ural valleys the chief navigable route follows successively the com-se of the Tura, Tobol, Irtish, Ob, Eet, Yenisei, Uj^per Tunguska or Angara, Lena, and Aldan. Farther north other rivers, also connected by portages, lay open to the conquerors of Siberia ; but between the Middle Lena and Amur basins many Cossack expeditions were defeated by the obstacles presented hy the reefs and rapids, dense woodlands, morasses, and the unproductive character of this region. Their jdans were often badly conceived, and in their search for the " White Fountain" or the "Land of Gold," they often proceeded in the wrong direction. 298 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Thus Lake Eailial was long sought for, not in the Yenisei basin, but cast of the Lena towards the Pacific Ocean. Poyarkov, the first Russian who in 1673 reached the Amur valley, ascended the river Aldan, and then crossing the Stanovoi range, followed the southern course of the Zieya ; but he lost one-third of his 130 men on the road, and the survivors had to live on their dead comrades or on the natives slain in battle. The journeys by water, which rendered the conquest of Siberia so eas}% can scarcely be made except in the middle region running east and west. Southwards the river basins are separated from each other by plateaux, highlands, and moimtain ranges ; farther north the main streams have already received all their chief affluents, so that here there are no more available water b^-ways, while in any case these frozen wastes are too inhospitable to be easily traversed by the most daring adventurers. East of the Yenisei, again, the lowlands change their character, Fig. 166. — Water Hirhways and Portages across Siberia. Scale 1 ; 35,000,000. EofG 50' :eO' C - Perron 000 Miles. the low-lying, fertile, or lacustrine tracts, swamps, and trembling prairies being here succeeded by hilly and gravelly lands, here and there crossed by rocky ridges, and rising even to groups of eminences difficidt of access. The Yenisei and Lena basins are, in fact, separated by a real plateau of palteozoic rocks, compelling the traveller to turn southwards. Hence the administrative division of the land into West and Ea.st Siberia is fully justified by the physical contrast between the two regions, a contrast extending to their flora, fauna, and inhabitants. Even in the extreme north the monotony of the plains is sometimes interrupted by clusters of elevated hills. MiddendorfE has given the name of " mountains " to the Siverma chain running west of the Yenisei within the Arctic Circle, and to the P>irranga range, which occupies the northern part of the continent between the Yenisei and the Khatanga, and which forms the double Taimir peninsula projecting far into the Frozen Ocean. Some of the summits on the east coast of this peninsula AVATEE HIGHWAYS-POETAGES— HIGHLANDS. 299 ai'e said to have an elevation of no less than 3,000 feet. Still Siberia may, on the whole, be described as a plain sloping imiformlj- in a north-westerly direction. A distinct water-parting between the rivers flowing, on the one hand, northwards to the Arctic, on the other to the inland basins of Central Mongolia and to the Pacific, is formed by the gi-eat orographic system comprising the Tiau-shan and Zungarian Ala-tau, the Tarbagatai and Altai, the Sayan Mountains, the Baikal highlands, the Yitim plateau, the parallel Yablonoi ranges, and the north-east section of the Stanovoi, or "Dorsal Chain," rimning towards Bering Strait. This vast system is itself composed of distinct sections, clearly separated one from the other. Xorth of the Tian-shan is the Zungarian depression, where at one time flowed a marine strait. The Upper Irtish vallej', between the Tarbagatai and Altai ranges, also forms a broad opening connecting the Kirghiz and ilongolian domains west and east. Between the Altai and Sayan ilountains the northern and southern basins are connected by similar depressions, while farther east, about the sources of the Yenisei and its western afiluents, uplands with a mean elevation of from 7,000 to 10,000 feet form the frontier chain skirting the Mongolian plateaux, every stream here affording easy access from Siberia to the Chinese Empire. Transbaikal is itseli a hilly plateau, limited south-west by two eminences — the Kamar-daban, at the extrcmitv' of the lake, and the Sokhondo, commandins' one of the main ridges of the Yablonoi system, on the Mongolian frontier. From this plateau the ascent is almost imperceptible to the hills from 3,500 to 4,000 feet high, which lead from the Selenga to the Amiu- ; that is, from the Arctic to the Pacific basin. Xorth-eastwards the water-2:)artings diminish in height, and beyond the Sokhondo none of the Yablonoi or Stanovoi summits would appear to reach 9,.500 feet, which is about the elevation of that momitain. Xorth of the Amur and Ud basins the loftj- ranges figiu'ing on the maps as portions of the " Great DiA-ide " are often in reality little more than marshy tracts with undecided inclination. But the whole of Eastern Siberia skii-ting the Sea of Okhotsk north-eastwards to the Bering Sea is mountainous, or at least very diversified, and here the land every- where rises highest near the sea-coast. South of the Stanovoi highlands the region watered by the Amur and its afiluents may, on the whole, be regarded as a mere continuation of the Mongolian plateau. The land slopes towards the Pacific in a series of terraces intersected by a number of nearlj- parallel ridges, including the Great Khingan, the Little Khingan, and the coast range rimning north of the Corean peninsvda. These Eastern Asiatic river and coast ranges are regidarly disposed in curves, with their convex sides facing east and south-east, and often describing perfectl}- equal seg- ments of a circle. Some are connected at their extremities in a series of continuous chains festooned at imiform intervals ; others are disjoosed in parallel concentric arcs, while the more important are rooted at one end with different systems. Thus the Kamchatka peninsida and Kurile Archipelago (the most geometrical of all) are connected ^-ith the hiUs of the Chukchi coimtry. This jjrevailing uniformity m the disposition of the Xorth-eastern Asiatic mountain systems must be largely due to volcanic agencies. While old sedimeutarj- foi-mations prevail in the South 800 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Siberian highliaid ranges bordering on the Mongolian plateau, the JSikhota-aHn, as well as various Manchui'ian mountains, in former times ejected lava streams, and still-active volcanoes fringe the east coast of Kamchatka. These Kamchatka moimtains arc, however, totally distinct from the East Siberian systems, and are the most elevated in Asiatic Russia next to the Tian-shan. ^One of the volcanoes in the peninsula is nearly as high as Mont Blanc. lin-ER Systems. The rivers rising in the glaciers and perpetual snows of the Altai and Sayan, or on the slopes of the less elevated ranges fallLag short of the snow-line, are remarkable for the great uniformity of their windings. Owing to the general tilt of the land they flow mainly north and north-west in the whole of Siberia, limited southwards by the ranges stretching from the Tian-shan to the Stanovoi.' Not only the three main streams, Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, but nearly all the other Fig. 1G7. — Dui!,VTioN OF the Fuost and Thaw ox the Yenisei and Lena. January . February March .'.. April ... May June July August... Septemb. October . Novemb . Decemb . M|rl||liil'll'i,|iV'll!l"'!ll|,"'' N -.---.-■■■,r,,7rsmasm!^^ " January Febru^iiy April May June lijuly ' August ! Septerab IMililMi l iiaiia Wff? ;■: '"4^ October ' ■' ' ■ ' '■'' Novenib Decemb Thaw on the Yenisei Yenisei. Ice-bound. Thaw on the Lena Lena. Ice-bound. rivers, foUow the line of the meridian in their northerly course. The Lena, how- ever, SO far contrasts with its two western rivals that it is deflected a long way eastwards by the palaeozoic rocks of Central Siberia before resuming its northern course parallel with the neighbouring Olonek and Yana. These great arteries rank with the largest rivers on the globe, both in volume and the extent of their basins. In these respects the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena surpass all the Eiu'opcan streams. Yet the mean annual rainfall in all the Siberian lands draining northwards scarcely exceeds 8 inches. But the ground being frozen to within a few inches of the surface, there is no loss by infiltration, so that wherever the land slopes ever so slightly everj' drop of water from the rains or melting snows must necessarilj' find its way to the afliuents of the Arctic Ocean. Else- where it remains in flats, marshes, or shallow lakes, which form a labyi-inth of land and water, constantly shifting its outlines with the abundance of the rains and intensity of the evaporation. The Taimir peninsula has thus become a lacus- trine region of stagnant waters. Estimating at about half of the annual snow and rain fall the quantity discharged EIVEE SYSTEMS. 301 by the three main streams, tlic mean volume of each mvist ba at least equal to 350,000 cubic feet per second, or four times that of the Rhine or Rhone. But the discharge is very unevenly distributed over the year, being much reduced m the ice-boimd beds of the streams in winter, when the smaller rivers are frozen to the bottom, and the large streams and lakes to a depth of from 4 to 7 feet. Except those fed by imderground rivulets from the great lakes, all the rivers rising within the Arctic Cii'cle thus cease to flow in winter. But with the melting of the snows the river beds are soon filled again, often overflo\nng their banks to great distances. In winter the water flowing beneath its thick icy covering is said gradually to " die," and the fish are no longer able to live in the vitiated atmosphere at these depths. Towards the end of autmnn they escape in multitudes either to the lakes and deep pools or to the estuaries. Then they maj' be easily taken in large cpiantities by simply breaking the ice wherever the water has remained " ali^e." Inunediately Fig. IGS. — DiuKT Ice on the Banks of the Yenisei. Scale 1 : 6,400. CvPercarr 220 Yards. after the thaw they ascend the streams in vast shoals, and sj)read over the flooded plains and forests. Here also they are captured in great nmnbers by means of the system of weirs set up at fhe mouths of the affluents. The flow of the Siberian rivers along the line of the meridian causes the break- up of the ice to assume a special character. In the extreme south, or at the base of the Altai, they are ice-boimd for from three to five months only ; but this period is extended as they flow northwards, and the estuaries between the 72nd and 75th parallels are free only for periods varying from sixty to one hundred days in the year. Free navigation can, in fact, be depended upon only from about the end of Jidy to the middle of Sejjtember. Middendorff has calculated that for every degree of latitude between the 56th and 72nd, the ice-boimd period increases on an average rather more than nine days. But farther south the increase is not qiute seven days, this discrepancj' being largeh^ due to the absence of springs in the north. In spring, when the ciu'rent begins to resume its coiu'sc and break through its VOL. VI. X 302 ASIATIC EUSSIA. wintry fetters, it soon floods both its banks, thus forming two zaberegi, or lateral channels, while the main stream is still frozen on the surface. Here the ice then begins gradually to arch upwards until it breaks into huge irregular fragments, which are swept along by the continuall}^ rising stream. These fragments torn from the river banks carrj- with them mud, cla}', gravel, and even large boulders, which in their northward course soon meet with still unbroken masses strong enough to resist their pressure. The moving masses are also at times retarded h\ the Fie;. 169. — Shores of the Yenisei worn by Glacial Action. fierce polar winds, and perhaps lodged at the foot of some projecting bluff. Here the blocks are piled one on the other, damming up the river, and causing it to rise 3 or 4 feet in a few hours. Finding no escape, ice and water spread laterally, dashing against the banks, sweeping away the shingle, in one place forming fresh dams, in another scoring the ground with deep furrows. Thus are the river banks yearly modified bj' glacial action. Even more than the rivers of European Russia, those of Siberia, flowing nearer ETHNOGRAPHICAL M' ^^ ?? Hep I LiOuumiaru--. Letts ^BB ^ b* 1 Geritiona I it I gj' ' S(t/iu Scandi/itn-ian£ I ^^^ i__' i__L-. \Ppnl »• /O' Sp" 50' ■^p- 5i}' ' / / -y^ay /li/jT-'.^ i/c/JI^ ^Wjr C Perron often exceeding 8G° and occasionally 101° at Yakutsk, a greater heat than usually prevails some 2,000 miles nearer the equator. As in Lapland, the baked surface of the tmidras is so hot as to be almost ixnendurable to pedestrians. Altogether the climate of Yakutsk, or rather of the Lower Lena basin, is the most tj^ical on the globe of extreme or continental temperature. Altitude compensating for latitude, the South Siberian highlands might at first sight be supposed to be as cold as the northern tundras. But such is not the case, and it has been shown that the higher we ascend towards the southern ranges the warmer it becomes. Thus up to a certaiu still undetermined point the tempera- CLIMATE. 807 tui'e rises with the elevatiou of the hmd. Similar observations have been made in the Alps and Pp-enees ; but what is the exception in Europe is the normal condi- tion in East Siberia, where it is caused by the brightness and calmness of the atmosjjhere. The hot air radiates into space, while the cold and denser atmo- spheric strata sink with their weight to the sui-face of the earth. Thus all the meteorological conditions here combine to raise the temperature of the higher and diminish that of the lower strata. Relatively warm currents of air prevail in the upper regions above the cold air resting on the lowland plains, and on Mount Alibert (7,400 feet) the wind in winter sets steadily from the comparatively warm north-west, south-west, and west quarters. Such, combined with the dry climate, are the causes which prevent the formation of glaciers on the Daurian, Aldan, and Stanovoi highlands. Even the mountains 2,000 to 3,000 feet high on the north coast, east of the Taimir peninsula, have but few snow-iields, and Nor- denskjold could not positively determine the presence of any real glaciers. These eminences fall short even of the snow-line, and in summer are quite free of snow, except perhaps where it is lodged in the deep ravines. Travellers speak of the Siberian winters vdth. mingled feelings of terror and rapture. An infinite silence broods over the land — all is biuied in deep sleep ; the animals hibernate in their dens, the streams have ceased to flow, disappearing beneath the ice and snow ; the earth, of a dazzling whiteness in the centre of the landscajje, but grey in the distance, nowhere offers a single object to arrest the gaze. The monotony of endless space is broken hj no abrupt lines or ^•i^-id tints. The only contrast -n-ith the dull expanse of land is the everlasting azure sky, along which the sun creeps at a few degrees only above the horizon. In these intensely cold latitudes it rises and sets with hard outlines, unsoftened by the ruddy haze elsewhere encircling it on the edge of the horizon. Yet such is the strength of its rays that the snow melts on the housetop exposed to its glare, while in the shade the temperature is 40° to 50° below freezing point. At night, when the firmament is not aglow with the many-tinted lights and silent coruscations of the aurora borealis, the zodiacal light and the stars still shine with intense biight- ness. Probably no other region of the globe is so favom-ably circumstanced for astronomic observation. Here the atmosphere is absolutely pure, unsullied except perhajjs on the river banks, whence rises a dense fog charged with icy particles, or in the neighboiu'hood of the vast herds shrouded in their vapoury exhalations. And man dares to face these tremendous frosts, while animals seek shelter in their lairs. The raven alone risks the open air with a feeble and slow flight, its wake marked by a slender haz}- streak. Yet these Siberian winters are less unendur- able than strangers might suppose. If well nom-ished, warmly clad, and wrapped in furs, they have nought to fear, for few climates are more healthy than that of East Siberia, with its perfectly dry, still, and pure atmosphere. JVo case' of con- sumption has ever occm'red at Chita, in the bleak Transbaikal province, where the mercury remains frozen for weeks together. To this severe winter, which fissures the surface and rends the rocks of the rivers into regular basalt-like columns, there succeeds a sudden and delightful 308 ASIATIC EtrSSIA. spring. So instantaneous is llie change that nature seems as if taken by surprise and rudely awakened. The delicate green of the opening leaf, the fragrance of the budding flowers, the intoxicating babn of the atmosphere, the radiant bright- ness of the heavens, all combine to impart to mere existence a voluptuoiis gladness. To Siberians visiting the temperate climes of Western Europe spring seems to hs unknown beyond their lands. But these first days of new life are followed by a chill, gusty, and changeful interval, arising from the atmospheric disturbances caused by the tha\ving of the vast snowy wastes. A relapse is then experienced analogous to that too often produced in England by late east winds. The apple blossom is now nipped by the night frosts falling in the latter part of May. Hence no apples can be had in East Siberia, although the summer heats are other«-isc amply sufficient for the rijjening of fruits. i\iter the fleeting summer winter weather again soon sets in. It will often fi-eeze at night in the middle of July ; after the 10th of August the sear leaf begins to fall, and in a few days all are gone, except perhaps the foliage of the larch. The snow will even sometimes settle early in August on the still leafy branches, bending and breaking them with its weight. Below the surface of the ground winter reigns iminterrupted even bj- the hottest simuners. About the middle of the last century Gmelin revealed to science the astonishing fact that from about 6 or 7 feet from the surface to a depth of over 30 yards the groimd remains permanently frozen. But this phenomenon was in seeming opposition to the normal increase of terrestrial temperature dox^nnvards, and it was asked how the frozen soil of Yakutsk could grow plants and ripen cereals. Hence Gmelin's statement was at first rejected ; but it has since been fully coufinued by the observations of Erman and Middendorff. A boring of 385 feet deep through the sandstone of Yakutsk failed to penetrate beyond the congealed strata, and had to be abandoned before water coidd be reached. But the assertion that the groimd in North Siberia is uniformly frozen to depths of from 450 to 500 feet cannot be accej)ted without more exhaustive observations. In some places, possibly from the presence of springs and other local causes, the tmcongealed soil has been reached at depths of even 3 to 4 feet. In winter the atmosjihere is usually still in the zone of intensest cold ; but not so in the siuToimding regions. From the Urals to the Yenisei, and from the Sayan highlands to the Arctic Ocean, the south and especially the south-west winds jjrevail in winter, while farther south the Kirghiz and Astrakhan steppes are swept by j)olar winds. East and west of the Urals the atmospheric currents from the tropics and Arctic zone meet midway ; but east of the Yenisei, and especially in the Lena basin, the direction is in winter generally fi'om the north-west towards the Pacific. The Sea of Okhot.sk is then lashed bj- fierce storms for months together. At Udskoi, near the coast, these furious monsoons blow steadily from the north-west from September to April, preventing all access to the Stauovoi high- lands, and at sea deflecting the Kuro-sivo current and causing vessels to alter their course between the two continents. The same glacial north-west wind pro- vails also in the Amui' basin and on the ^fongolian jilatcaux, compelling travellers CLIMATE. 809 and conductors of caravans going westward to protect their faces with felt masks from its fury. During the winter of 1878-9 Nordeuskjiild and his associates found that it blew almost uninterruptedly along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, though not so violently as elsewhere. In sunrmer also the polar winds ai'e attracted to the Siberian seaboard by the rarefaction of the atmosphere on the heated tundras. But in the east the continent is during this season visited by east and south-east breezes from the Pacific, which are often felt as far inland as the Baikal basin, where thej^ bring an abundant supjjly of moisture. The shores of the Sea of Okhotsk are then constantly o^'ercast, and the Kurile waters en veloj^ed for weeks together in dense fogs. Here the mean annual rainfall exceeds 40 inches, while in many places in the interior it scai'cely amounts to 10 inches. In certain parts of South Siberia, and especially in the Transbaikalia, whole ^-inters pass without any snowfall. Elsewhere, as in the Krasnoyarsk district, the plains Fig. 172. — North EUK Limit of Fohest Vegetation. Scile 1 : .IS.OOI.OOO. L of" C Perron . GOO Miles. are swept of their snows by the storms, and the autumn-so^ni corn dispersed by the winds.* Under the action of the regidar monsoons the snow is often disposed in parallel dunes succeeding each other like the ocean waves. During the long winter nights the Chukchis are able to guide themselves as with a compass by the direc- tion of these zasfrugi, which, however, have to be j'early renewed after their dispersion hy the storms. The most dreaded of these storms are the hurans, which rage in the midst of the plains like tropical hurricanes, sweeping with them snow, ice, gravel, branches, debris of every sort, and often man liimself. * Annual rainfall in Siberia :- Aryan (Sea of Okhotsk) , Yakutsk .... Kiakhtn .... Inches. 36 10 Bernaiil Nerchinskiy-zavod Tobolsk . Indies. 13 IG 18 810 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Flora. With its vast extent and varied climate Siberia naturally embraces several vegetable zones, diiTering more from each other even than those of Europe. The southern steppes have a characteristic and well-marked flora, forming a continua- tion of that of the Aral, Caspian, and Yolga plains. The treeless northern tundras also constitute a vegetable domain as sharply defined as the desert itself, while between these two zones of steppe and tundra the forest region of Eui-ope stretches, Fig. 173. — Tkailixg Larch 1.50 Years old : Quarter of the natvr.al Size. with many subdivisions, west and east right across the continent. Of these sub- divisions the chief are those of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and Amur basins. The northern limit of forest vegetation is generally drawn at too great a distance from the Frozen Ocean. In Siberia the tree line, everj-where formed by the larch (^Larix Daitrica Sibirica^, so far from running east and west along the same parallel of latitude, is deflected northwards mainly with the coast-line. Thus it coincides in the Ob basin nearly with the Arctic Circle, crosses the Yenisei about 70° N. lat., and in the Taimir peninsula inclines along the banks of the Khatanga 170 miles still farther north. East of this point it graduallj- falls again towards the Polar Circle, so that the whole of the Bering peninsula is excluded from the forest zone. But long before reaching its extreme limits forest vegetation every- where becomes dwarfed. Beyond the 60th parallel no trees occur- with stems more than 4 feet thick, and beyond the Gist they scarcely average 12 or 14 inches, and near the tundra shrink to half a foot. From a distance the forests two or three himdred years old, consisting of such slender trees, look Ulie fresh plantations. FLOE A. 811 The grouud being frozen to withiu a short distance of the surface, prevents the roots from penetrating vertically in search of moisture, while for a great part of the year the superinciunbent snows deprive the branches of all communication with the atmosphere. In winter trimk and roots alike remain completely frozen, hibernatiug, so to say, like the wild beasts, till the fii-st warm days of spring. Its slow growth imparts to the fibre an extraordinary hardness, but the timber thus becomes less elastic and more brittle. The last struggling larches are \mable to put forth true branches, throwing off nothing but a few hard, almost thorny, limbs and shoots. In this incessant struggle between life and death most of the few trees that approach the tundra soon lose all their sap. Moss-covered and branch- less, they look like aged and dead trunks. Yet beyond these larches, which still stand erect, there come others which trail along the ground half hidden by their mossy mantles. "Within GO miles of the forest line these rampant species are met, which in one hundred and fifty years have scarcely grown 4 feet, and which look more like exposed roots than veritable trees. Throughout Xorth Siberia, as well as on the slopes of the southern highlands, abundant traces occur of a former forest zone reaching far beyond the present limits of timber. In some parts of the north the trees have retreated from 12 to 15 miles, a fact attributed rather to frequent summer frosts than to an increased intensity of cold iu winter. Hence trees thrive perfectly well in the Lena basin, where the winter is most severe, but the summer less exposed to frosts. Stm the climate of North Siberia, like that of other Arctic regions, has certainly increased in severity duriag the last few hundred years. Beyond the forest zone stretch the tundi-as, where the only vegetation is herbage, mosses, and lichens. The tundi-a is not composed exclusively of low plaias, but also comprises hilly districts, and on the whole is rather a rolling land, in ^\-hich eminences rising 300 feet above the plaias follow each other beyond the horizon like the ocean waves. Although of different origin, the tundra ia many respects resembles the steppe. The latter is produced by lack of moisture, the former by lack of heat. But both alike have the same cheerless aspect, and produce the same mournful impression on the miud. The species of plants growing along the Arctic seaboard are found also on the shores of the Ural Sea, 30° farther south. In the peninsula of Taimir alone there are no less than ten genera and twenty-one species of phanerogamous plants. Still the mosses prevail, and for vast spaces seem to occupy the field to the exclu- sion of all other t}-]3es. AVTiere the pohjtrichuin predominates the tundras are of a dirty yellow ; where the reindeer moss forms the chief element they assume a faded white Kue. The monotony of these dull white or yellow expanses is broken only here and there by a patch of green herbage, marking the site of some abandoned Samoj-ede camp, or the lair of an Arctic fox. A few " trembling " pastiu'e lands also occur, but as a ride onl}' near running waters. Between the northern tundras and southern steppes by far the greatest space is occupied by the forest zone. From the Urals to Kamchatka the dense taiga, or woodlands, are interrupted only by the streams, a few natural glades, and some 312 ASIATIC ETJSSIA. >|i||iiiii>;iiiii 60 tracts uucler cultivation. The term faii/a is used in a general \\"ay for all lauds under timber, but east of the Altai it is applied more esiDccially to the moist and spongy regions overgrown with tangled roots and thickets, ■\\here the i/iari. oi' FLOEA. 813 peat bogs, and luarslies alternate with the padi, or narrow ravines. The miners call by this name the wooded mountains where they go in search of auriferous sands. But everywhere the taiga is the same dreary forest, without grass, birds, or insects, gloomy and lifeless, and noiseless but for the soughing of the wind and crackling of the branches. The conifers are the prevailing trees, and these comprise all the species common to Europe, besides the Pinus picJita, peculiar to East Siberia. This species is. very tall and slender, about 90 feet high, and seldom over 10 inches in diameter, with Fig. 173. — Eange of Animal Species in Noinu Asia. AccordiDsr to Seyertzov. Scale 1 : 42,750,000. E.OFG. II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. ' C. PerrQO XII. XIII. I. Arctic Zoxk. — Xortherx Zose. Eegiftns: II. North-European; HT. Uralo-Siberi;»n ; IV. East Siberian ; V. Inter- mediate. — Middle Zove. Rtginns : VI. Uralo-Barabian ; VII. Dauiian ; VIII. Intermediate. — 1)esert Zonk. R'^gions : IX. West Asiatic; X. Central Asiatic ; XI. Intermediate. — Seric Zose. Itegions: "VTT. North China ; y T IT. Japan. . 600 Miles. smooth bark, and in the large central forests noted for its bluish-green foKage. Though a noble plant, it is of but slight economic value, being too fragile for building purposes, and not verj- useful even as fuel. The so-called " Siberian Cedar " [PiiiHS ccmhrci) is in every respect the best and most used for furnitiu-e, wearing well, and never rotting unless expcsed to sudden changes of temperatui-e. The most common tree in the ttiiga is the larch, which best resists the «-inter frost and summer chiUs. The various species range from the extreme limits of forest vegetation to the Upper Ussiu-i basin, in South Siberia. But the Siberian 314 ASIATIC EUSSIA. woodlands also include most of the trees common to temperate Eurojie — the linden, alder, juniper, service, willow, aspen, poj)lar, birch, cherry, apricot — whose areas are regulated according to the nature of the soil, the elevation or aspect of the land. Towards the south-east, on the Chinese frontier, the birch is encroaching on the indigenous species, and the natives regard this as a sure prognostic of the approach- ing rule of the " white Czar." Conflagrations are very frequent in the Siberian forests, caused either by light- ning, the woodmen, or himters, and sometimes spreading over vast spaces till arrested by rivers, lakes, or morasses. One of the pleasures of Siberian travelling is the faint odour of the woods burning in the distance. The native flora is extremely rich in berries of every kind, supplying food for men and animals. Collected in vast quantities in the neighbourhood of the towns, they are used in the preparation of preserves and liqueiirs, which partly replace fruits in the native diet. Poisonous plants are rare, and disappear altogether in the north. Some cultivated species have been introduced even into the tundra and all the camping grounds along the Arctic seaboard. The soil of this region spontaneously produces varioiis anti- scorbutics, and the so-called " water plums," an edible gelatinous substance, may be collected in abimdance in all fresh-water basins. Thus, as Yon Baer remarks, in the tropics man gathers his food from the trees, in the temperate zone from the soil, in the polar regions from the water. Fauxa, The natural limits of the land faima coincide with those of forest vegetation in the neighbourhood of the Arctic Ocean. Still the mouse and other rodents, preyed on by the white bear in summer, reach beyond the tree Hue into the timdra. South of this line stretches the zone of the European species, gradually modified as they proceed eastwards. The steppes and the Dadrian highlands occupy the southern region, while towards the south-east a portion of the Amur basin and all Russian Manchuria belong already to the Chinese domain. Within a recent geological ejioch Siberia was still inhabited by a large species of rhinoceros, and by the mammoth, an elephant larger and stronger than any now existing. These monsters also roamed over the plains and forests of Europe, where, as in Siberia, they were the contemjDoraries of man. But in Europe they are now represented only by fragments of their skeletons, whereas in Xorth Asia their very carcasses have been foimd still covered with the flesh and hides. In 1771 Pallas assisted at the removal of a rhinoceros from the banks of the Lower Tilin, west of Yakutsk. Portions of the head and feet are still preserved in St. Petersburg, together with similar remains foimd in 1877 on the Bitantai, near the Yana. In 1799 a frozen mass floating down the Lena grounded near the mouth of the river where it released the body of a mammoth as it gradually melted from summer to summer. When found by the naturalist Adams the native Tunguses had already carried off the tusks, but the eyes, brain, and much of the flesh still remained, and the skeleton is now in the St. Petersburg Museiun. A second mammoth, now in TAUNA. 315 tile Moscow 3Iuscum, was cHscoA'cred in 1839, and a third was brought to light in 1866 by Schmidt near the estuary of the Taz. The " ivory hunters " have long been in the habit of visiting the Arctic seaboard and the archipelago of New Siberia in search of mammoths, and such was formerly the abundance of these animals that the annual yield of fossil ivory amounted to 40,000 lbs. In 1840 Middendorff calculated that up to that time the remains of about 20,000 mammoths had been discovered about the Siberian river banks. "^Tiether the climate of the country was warmer when these animals flourished than at present is a moot question with geologists. Being covered with long hair, the mammoth could certainly endure the rigours of a Siberian winter. But in the tundras and along the shores of the Frozen Ocean, now strewia with his tusks, he coidd not have found the foliage necessary for his sustenance. Are we then to conclude that the country was at that time wooded, or rather that the real home of the mammoth was South Siberia, whence his remains di-ifted with the streams northwards ? Various traditions associated with these animals have been diffused throughout Siberia and China. In the Chinese annals mention is made of the mnmcntova, a rat as large as an elephant, burrowing undergroinid, and sviddenly killed by contact with the air. The Sanioyedcs saj- that the mammoth still exists, haunting the streams and coast, and living on the dead bodies cast up by the waves. They speak of the rhinoceros as a gigantic biixl, whose talons were the tusks purchased bj- the ivory hunters. Their legends also describe the terrific combats that formerly took place between their forefathers and these birds. A microscopic examination of the vegetable remains adhering to the molars of the rhinoceros in the Irkutsk Museum has revealed the fibres of the larch, birch, willow, closelj' allied to, if not identical with, the species still growing in northern latitudes. The oj^iuion is thus confirmed that these pachydermata lived in the middle zone, south of the extreme limits of the northern regions where their remains are now found. These remains are often found associated with those of the horse, ox, and sheep ; but the same gradual evolution has taken place in Siberia as in Em-ope, and all these species have been similarly modified. The extreme eastern regions of the Amur basin and Russian Manchuria, being warmer, more humid and fertile, also aboimd more in animal life than the other parts of Asiatic Russia. On the other hand, the Siberian bear, deer, roebuck, hare, squirrel, marmot, and mole are about one-third larger, and often half as heavy again as their European congeners. This is doubtless due partly to the greater abundance of nourishment along the rivers and shores of Siberia, and partly to the fact that for ages the western species have been more prej-ed upon by man, living in a constant state of fear, and mostly perishing before attaining their full development. The Arctic Seas abound probably as much as the Pacific Ocean with marine animals. Nordenskjold found the Siberian waters very rich in molluscs and other lower organisms, implying a corresponding abimdance of larger animals. Hence fishing, perhaps more than navigation, will be the future industry of the Siberian coast populations. Cetacea, fishes, molluscs, and other marine organisms are cast up 316 " ASIATIC EUSSIA. in such quantities along both sides of Bering Strait that the bears and other omnivorous creatures have here become veiy choice as to their food. But on some parts of the coast in the Chukchi country whales are never sti'anded, and since the arrival of the Russians certain species threaten to disappear altogether. The Ehytina stelleri, a sjjecics of walrus formerly frequenting Bering Strait in millions, was conipletel_v exterminated between the years 1741 — G8. Manj^ of the fur- bearing animals, which attracted the Cossacks from the Urals to the Sea of Okhotsk, and M'hich were the true cause of the conquest of Siberia, have become- extremely rare. Their skins are distinguished, above all others, for their great softness, warmth, lightness, and bright colours. The more Alpine or continental the climate, the more beautiful and highly prized become the furs, which diminish in gloss towards the coast and in West Siberia, where the south-west winds prevail. The sables of the North Urals are of small value, while those of the Upper Lena, 15^ farther south, are worth a king's ransom. Many species assume a white coat in winter, whereby they are difficult to be distinguished from the surroimding snows. Amongst these are the polar hare and fox, the ermine, the campagnol, often even the wolf and reindeer, besides the owl, yellow-hammer, and some other birds. Those which retain their brown or black colour are mostly such as do not show themselves in winter. The fur of the squirrels also varies with the sui-rounding foliage, those of the pine forests being ruddy, those of the cedar, taiga, and firs inclining to brown, and all varying in intensity of coloiu- with that of the vegetation. Other species besides the peltry-bearing animals have diminished in muubers since the arrival of the Russian hunters. The reindeer, which frequented the South Siberian highlands, and whose domain encroached on that of the camel, is now found only in the domestic state amongst the Soyotes of the Uj^per Yenisei, and is met with in the wild state only in the dwarf forests and tundras of the far north. The argali has withdi-awn to Mongolia from the Siberian mountains and plains, where he was still very common at the end of the last century. On the other hand, cold and want of food yearly di-ive great nxunbers of antelopes and wild horses from the Gobi steppes towards the Siberian lowlands, tigers, wolves, and other beasts of prey following in their track, and returning with them in the early spring. Brute creation seems well acquainted with the political frontiers of the two regions, and many birds, which in Siberia start at the least sound, allow them- selves to be approached without betraying any sjnnptoms of fear in Mongolia. This is specially the case with water- fowl, which the Mongolian nomads never dare to attack in the " sacred element." For the universal belief prevails that " shoidd the blood of a bird mingle with the pure stream, it becomes fatal to all the flock di-inkiug of it." Hitherto the hand of man seems to have made no impression on certain sociable animals uimierous in various parts of South Siberia. The Irtish, Yenisei, and Transbaikul steppes are honey-combed with galleries expanding to underground cities, wherever the soil is at once sandj^ and consistent enough to resist sudden changes of temperature. Such districts are peopled by the biurowing tribes, and o IXHABITANTS-THE CHUDES. 817 the surface is often covered for miles with regular mounds thrown up by millions of troglodj-tes from their endless subterranean labyriaths. Here it is the Tarbagan marmot {^Ardomijs bobac), there the whistling hare (^Lagomys agodonans), elsewhere the mole or other creatures w"ith similar habits. In the cool of the evening every hiUock is occupied by some little rodent erect on its hind legs, sui'veyiug the surrounding landscape, suddenly disappearing at the least noise, and as suddenly reaijpeariug to ascertain the cause of its fright. The lines of tarbagans mounting guard at their palace gates sometimes stretch beyond the horizon, like the sentineb: of a comitless army. Colonies of these marmots also people some of the treeless Kamchatka, Baikal, and Vitim highlands beyond the forest zone, ha\-ing probably crossed the intervening wooded tracts before they were covered with timber. Several new species of animals have been introduced by man, and modified by crossings in the domestic state. In the north the Samoyedes, Chukchis, and Kam- chadales have the reindeer and dog, while the horse and ox are everywhere the companions of man in the peopled regions of Siberia. The yak has been tamed by the So3*otes of the Upper Yenisei, and the camel, tj-pical of a distinctly Eastern civilisation, follows the nomads of the Kii'ghiz and Mongolian steppes. All these domesticated animals seem to have acquired special qualities and habits from the various indigenous or Eussian peoples of Siberia. The Samoyede dog differs as much from the Cossack as the latter does fiom the Mauchu species. IxHAiiiTAXTS — The ChCdes. All the local traditions, confinncd by manj- objects found in the old bui'ial- places, .Sc}'thian " objects from the Dniejun- and Euxine districts. The civilised Chudes, -who are generally believed to have been of Finnish stock, were in all probability exterminated during the long wars which preceded the barbaric migrations. The Mongols, by whom they have been replaced, recognise their own foreign origin — when asked whence thej' came, pointing in\ariably to the south-cast. But although the Chudes as a nation have vanished, they still doubtless sur\4ve, intermingled with the indigenous semi-barbarous populations, themselves destined cither to merge with or disaj^pear before the Russians. Although their dialects enable us still to group the various Siberian peoples, there can be no doubt that there has been a great mixture of races in this region. From the Urals to the Corean frontier a gradual transition of types may be traced, while isolated groups everywhere occiu-, which may be regarded as representing Mongol or Tiaki tribes dwelling thousands of miles off. The Mongol tj^pe is most pronounced in the women. Even in North-west Siberia we frequently see young girls with almost Chinese features. Intermixture has been much promoted by the usages of the Siberian nomads. Enforced displacements of whole tribes often remove them from the parent stock, and bring Ihem into contact with other races. In their long journej's across large tracts of the continent the Yakut or Buriat traders purchase their wives, now in one, now in another tribe, and not unfrequentlj' maintain separate "establishments" in the various countries visited by them. The wives are also let out on hire, the children sold to strangers, orphans adopted by strange tribes or by the Hussian settlers and traders. Although the Slav type, especially amongst the Little Russians and Easkolniks, has been perfectly preserved in some settlements, a general fusion of all the Siberian peoples is gradually taking place. While the Russian emigrants become assimilated to the Yakuts, many Tunguses are being slowly Russified. According to the relative importance of the elements in contact, the features and habits of one or other approach the prevailing type. Thus the Finns and Turks of the west have acquired a European appearance, while in the east preserving their Asiatic features. Throughout Siberia proper, from the Urals to the Pacific, the Russians, either pure or sprung of Cossack alliances with the native women, have already become the most important element both numerically and socially. The Siberian Slavs number over 3,000,000, and those of the Ural districts over 4,000,000, while the scattered native tribes cannot be estimated at much more than 700,000, exclusive of the Kirghiz, whose steppes are now administratively included in " Central Asia." Some groups occupying a domain larger than France consist only of a few nomad families receding before the foreign settlers. The Russians hold in compact masses the eastern slopes of the Urals, and the Tobol, Irtish, and Upper Ob basins. They are also predominant in the Yenisei and Angara valleys and in Transbaikalia, and have occupied all the arable tracts along the river banks. Since 1S60 they have been spreading over the fertile Altai valleys, which were in that year thrown open to free immigration. I i! I":' 7|^-' THE ALTAI HIGHLANDS. 319 II.— THE xUiTAI HIGHLANDS. The '-Gold Mountaius," as the name probablj- means, from the 'Mongol Af-fiti, PvnonJ^uous with the Chinese Gin-shan, comprise the whole system of highUmds rising north of the Zimgarian depressions, and forming an eastward eontinualion of the Tian-shan and Pamir. Although far less extensive and elevated tliaii tlic Tian-shan, the Altai still bears comparison with the European Aljjs, if not in the height of its jieaks, diversity- of its forms, abimdance of its snow or rich vegetation, at least in the development of its ranges and length of its vallej-s. The Altai proper doubtless comprises, on Russian territory, the snowy region alone, which is limited on the west by the valley of the Black Irtish, and eastwards by the Suok Pass. But this much-frequented pass, on the Eusso-Chinese frontier, is a pui-el}'- conventional Kmit, for the system still stretches eastward, imder the name of the Sayan range, as far as the Yenisei, and beyond it to the Baikal uplands. In the direction of Chiaa the Altai is continued in a system of little-kno^vn chains and spurs far south of the sources of the Yenisei and to a considerable distance iuto the Mongolian plateaiix. At the same time the term is employed somewhat vaguely iu Siberia, being often applied not only to the hills, but also to the plains at their feet, and ia fact to the whole region depending adniinistrativelj- on Barnaul, Biisk, and Kuznetzk. ^Yheu the Altai is approached by the great South Siberian route fi'om the Urals, nothing is ^-isible except irregidar hills, bare and forbidding as the steppe itself. Beyond the scattered forests and lakes of the plains little is met but grey and arid tracts, the horizon being limited south and east by a sky-line of low and formless mountains, concealing fi-om view the more elevated summits on the Chinese frontier. The prevailing nakedness of the rocks is relieved by a few verdant crests, but in the ^Vestern Altai regions the landscape is mostly of an extremely desolate character. The south-west winds, bearing moisture across Europe to the Urals and western slopes of the Tian-shan, are completely exhausted before reaching the Altai. Their humidity comes altogether with the cold north- east winds, which in many places clothe them vdth rich jjastiu-es. In the Urgudci valley, north of the Saj-an, few days pass without rain or snow falling according to the season. In these moist regions the rimning streams and woodlands impart to the mountain scenery quite a different character from that of the bleak western highlands. Wherever the crags and rugged heights assume large jjroportions, the landscape recalls that of the European Alps. A gorge of the Ujjper Chuya, leading towards the Suok Pass between Biisk and llongoUa, is a sort of " Via Mala " in the contrast of the uj)per vegetation with the gloomy abyss at the bottom of which rushes the foaming torrent. But in the heart of the highlands the ujjper basin of the Chuya is a bare steppe seldom watered by the rains, and where the light winter snows are soon brushed aside by the winds. In several districts the Alpine region is sharply deiined by the crest fonning the dividing line between Y 2 320 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Eussia and China. On either side of this line the contrast is complete, the northern slopes being clothed with forests of conifers, while southwards the rocky wnderness stretches beyond the horizon. The waters escape on both sides in opposite directions, THE ALTAI HIGHLANDS. 321 and the inliabitants belong to distinct ethnical groups — Mongols o"i the Chinese, Telenguts or Kalnudcs on the Russian sloi^es. The Altai system consists of numerous chains running mainlj' west-north-west and east-south-cast parallel with the Tarbagatal and many other Central Asiatic Fig. 177. — Lake Teletzkoye. Sc.ile 1 : 200,000. " \" 4= " # ■ ■ j^ ■j-.-"#"."t: i""-^^:?"^ 7n-,7 EofG ,.ti.t7.^g?,j»..n> . 8a"40 89°I0 C.P,-'a.-. 3 Miles. ridges. These Bi/clhi, or " Alps," are connected by irregular transverse ridges and plateaux, forming collectively a winding north-easterly watershed between the Ob basin and the Gobi desert. The Altai, however, does not form a complete water- parting, for the Ulungur, a head-stream of the Irtish, rises in the Gobi, making its 322 ASIATIC EUSSLV. way tliencc nortlnvards round tlic western Lighlands. The whole system, including the intermediate valleys and southern plateaux, has a mean elevation of scarcely more than from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, though the chief crests rise to from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. The Ulau-dabas, forming the central nucleus, whence flow northwards several affluents of the Katun, westwards the Bukhtarma, southwards the Oigur, a tributary of the Ikc-eral, is intersected by a pass which, according to Miroshni- chenko, is no less than 9,400 feet high. North-west of this formidable j^ass the Altai system culminates with the Bielukha, or " White " Moimtain, whose two peaks are each about 11,100 feet high. The highland mass commanded bj- this mountain is comijletcly severed from the rest of the Altai on the south, west, and north by the Katun, or Katuniya, which is the true Upper Ob. It receives numerous head- streams, one of which, the Kok-su, flows eastwards through the narrow fissure of the Korgon jjlatcau, about 0,500 feet high. The Bielukha or Katim Mountains have the best claim to the title of the " Great Altai," usuall}' given to the still little-known region of the Mongolian Altai. The "Great Altai" of most geograjjhers is called the " Little Altai " by Yenyukov. It forms the western frontier chain of the Kobdo plateau, whose escarpments slope south-westwards to the Ulungur and Black Irtish vallej's. Several of its smmnits rise above the line of perpetual snow. East of the Russian Altai', whose various sections are usually named from their chief rivers or nearest villages, the Tannu-ola range runs in ^longolia between the Yenisei head-streams and the waters flowing towards the Ubsa-nor. Farther north the wooded Sayan Mountains sweep in a bold curve towards the Yenisei, above which they terminate with the Shabin-dabag. The lower Kuznetzkiy Ala-tau ridges, forming the water-parting between the Ob and the Yenisei basins, still maintain an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Several small lakes are dotted over the highland region where the Altai and Saj-an converge. But the largest and finest lacustrine basin in the Altai regions is Lake Teletzkoye, fed bj' the Chulishman, and draining through the Biya westwards to the Ob. In the beauty of its scenery this basin resembles Lake Geneva, and, like it, consists of two divisions, but more abruptly disposed. It stands at an altitude of 1,G00 feet, and has an area of 110 square miles, with a depth of about 140 fathoms. At its southern extremity rises the snowy Altin-tau, or " Gold Mt)iuitain," a sacred spot in the ej'cs of the Kabuidis, who call it the " Father of the Momitains and Lake," and pretend that it has always punished with death the profane adventurers who have dared tu scale its heights. The Bielidcha also, as indicated by its name, rises above the snow-lino, and even develops a glacier about 2,800 yards long, whence flow the first head-streams of the Katun. A few limited snow-fields descend from the neighbouring mountains, remnants of the extensive glaciers that formerly covered these highlands. The snow-line on the slopes of the Altin-tau, recently fixed at about 7,500 feet, has now been raised to 8,600 feet; yet it still remains at a lower elevation than the corresponding line on the Alps and Pyrenees. The heights below the snow-line are partly covered with marshy tracts sti'ewn FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE ALtAL 323 with granite boulders. These heights, flattened on top, but with very steep sides, are separated by deep valleys, which seem to have been hollowed out by erosion in the softer schistose rocks embedded in the granite masses, of which the Altai system is mainly composed. Some porphp-ies and serpentines have here and there intruded in the crystalline and schist formations ; but there are nowhere any c\ddences of volcanic action. The Altai is e^•idently a very ancient system, without any of the dyassic, triassic, Jurassic, chalk, or tertiary strata. Since the formation of the palaeozoic rocks, its crests have always been raised above the seas and lower steppes. The coal-fields discovered ui the Kuzuetzk Moimtains, on the banks of tlie Tom, and the rich metalliferous veins, which have given such economic importance to the Altai region, date from these geological epochs. Flora and Fauna of the Altai. Compared with that of the surroimding steppes, the flora of the Altai is extremely rich, though still inferior to that of Central Europe in the number of its species. Ledebour, who has collected about 1,600 flowering plants in this region, estimates at about four-sevenths of the species indigenous in Gennany those composing the wild flora of the Altai, which lies under the same latitude as the Bohemian highlands, and is exposed to the same alternating south-west and north- east winds. AU the families, except those growing on the shores of salt lakes, are represented in the Altai by fewer species than in Central Europe. The maple is wanting altogether, the lime-tree occurs only in isolated clusters, and the alder is very rare. On the other hand, there are some peculiar species, such as the hedge cherry (^Luiikera Tatarica) and the pea-tree {^Caragana arborcscens^, whose whitish and acacia-Kke foliage is seen on most of the less productive slopes. The steppe flora encroaches on the Altai flora proper to a height of about 1,000 feet along the advancing spurs. It is very poor, especially in the saline tracts, and imparts a grey or j-ellowish tone to the landscape, here and there relieved by pale green tints. Grassy lauds occur only on the well-watered low- lying flats, and this tall herbage, heaving like the waves under the action of the winds, is said to produce something like the efEect of sea-sickness on the natives accustomed to the sombre motionless aspect of the bare steppe. Along the river banks the steppe flora is interrupted by arborescent vegetation, including the birch and other rapidly growing species, and occasionally the pine, where it has not escaped the conflagrations it is exposed to in the neighbom-hood of hmuau habitations. Of the jiojilars and wUlows, aboimding most in the rivers rising in the Altai, some species seem to have originated in the Upper Ob basin. The black birch and medlar reach an altitude of 6,800 feet, whereas the forest zone proper is comprised between ■i,oOO and 6,600 feet. But in all the iuhabited districts it has been considerably encroached upon by the woodman's axe, and in some places nothuig but saplings are met for himdreds of square miles. In the valleys sheltered from the diy south-west winds, and at a distance from the mining districts, the pine " taiga " are still met, and higher up forests of firs and other 324 ASIATIC EUSSIA. conifers finer than those of Europe, o\\-ing to the richness and variety of the undergrowth. The Alpine plants, reaching from the forest zone to the snow-Hne, are noted for their bright colours and pungent odour. They are intermingled first with the last stimted growth of dwarf trees, and then with the mosses and lichens, which finally disappear under the snows. The mountaia fauna, like the flora, is relatively very rich, and the Kahnuk sings, " The White Altai, with its four valleys and six, of sixty birds is the home, and of countless deer." In the section explored by him, Ledebour collected twenty-one species of manunals, sixty-fom* of birds, twenty-eight of amphibia, but seven only of fish. On the Chinese frontier there are some animals belonging to the Central Asiatic faima ; but on the whole the species are the same as those of the Tian-shan and Siberia. The stuffed tigers ia the Barnaul Museimi were intruders from a foreign domain, and do not seem to have been here indigenous. Some animals, formerly very common, have either disappeared or become very scarce. Such are the beaver, now foimd only on the Black Irtish, and the elk, so numerous ill the time of Pallas that the tribute was often paid with its skias, valued at about half a rouble each. But while some have been exterminated by the himter, others have been introduced by the Eussian and Tatar peasants. The Russians of the Bukhtarma valley have succeeded in taming, and thus preserving, the marali, which has elsewhere been nearly extirpated by the less provident settlers. This ruminant is more valued than the horse, because of its greater docility, and because it consumes less hay, if supplied with plenty of salt. The horns of the male are sawn in spring, yielding on an average about £8 worth of the gelatinous substance so highly prized by the Chinese. The skin and flesh have also a great economic value. The bee, said by Ledebour to have been introduced by the Russians towards the close of last century, seems to be indigenous, at least in the region of Lake Teletzkoye, where it is foimd in the -^^-ild state, and has a native name. In any case agriculture has become one of the great industries of the Altai, and as many as 2,000 hives are grouped aroimd some farmsteads. In several Aillages the annual yield amovmts to 125,000 lbs. of honey, and 500,000 lbs. of honey and 825,000 lbs. of wax are yearly exported from the Bukhtarma valley. This highly perfumed honey is largely consmned in the Altai regions, where, as iu Russia, it is eaten with candied frmts and cuciunbers. IxiLiBiTAXTS — The K.4iMrKs, Tatars, and Russians. The prehistoric races of the Altai have left traces of their ci\alisation, and the local mines had from the remotest times been worked by one of those mysterious races known as " Chudes." The hills and plains are strewn with their barrows, generally sui'rounded with stones and gooseberry thickets. TVlicn the Russians discovered the rich mineral treasures of the Altai, they foimd that mines had everywhere been opened, and Pallas tells us that iu one of them the skeleton was foimd of one of those prehistoric miners, with a leather sack full of ores by his side. INHABITANTS— THE KALMUKS, TATAES, AND RUSSIANS. 325 In many places the lioney-combccl ground has given way, fonning large basins, now 2)artly filled with water. In the agricultui-al districts also human skeletons have been found beneath the " black earth," associated -nith the remains of horses, and delicately wrought gold, silver, copper, and iron objects. These ancient miners of the Altai' and Yenisei, as well as those of the Urals, were amongst the ancestors of the debased populations occupying the Altai valleys at the time of the arrival of the Russians, and who belonged to the Ural-Altaic stock. Omng to the common tendency to seek the cradle of races in highland regions, the terms Ural and Altai, like that of the Caucasus, have been employed to designate the various Tatar, Finnish, and even MongoKau nations of North Asia. The Mongols occu^jy all the southern slopes of the Altai and surrounding plateaux. But they have also crossed the fi-ontier, and dwell in the midst of the Russians and Tatars of the northern vallej-s, though they are here chiefly repre- sented by the Kalmidis, variously estimated at from 12,000 to 20,000. These commimities, who call themselves Telingit, or Telengut, and some of whom are even ignorant of the name of Kalmulc, are described as " the most honest of Asiatic peoples." The Teletzes of the Chulishmau valley, from whom Lake Teletzkoye takes its name, form a "family of brothers," far superior to their more " ci-^-ilised " conquerors in simplicity, uprightness, and hospitality. Till receuti}' they were subjects both of China and Russia, knowing no political frontier, and pajTng tribute to two masters. But since I8G9 their allegiance has been confined to the White Czar. They formerly occupied a far more extensive territory, stretching even beyond the Irtish ; but they are now limited to the Biisk and Kuznetzk districts of the Eastern Altai. Although of Mongol stock, they now speak a Turki dialect, aboimding in Mongolian terms. The Altai Kahuulcs are pure Shamanists, freely practising their rites, and on grand occasions sacrificing animals. Their idols or symbolic images consist of blocks of wood or bark representing men with outstretched arms, not imlike the votive offerings often lining the walls of churches in the south of Em-ope. These many-coloured images represent the good and bad sjnrits, who dwell between heaven and earth, in the mountains and at the bottom of the lakes. Hare-skins, regarded by the Orthodox Russians as impure, are sacred objects in the eyes of the Kalmuks, who spread them over wooden crosses, also revered as holy spnbols. The ghosts of their forefathers are represented by partj'-colom-cd ribbons attached to the branches or streaming from poles, and every Kalmuk knows his ribbon by the name of one of his ancestors. He understands the language of the ^\•ind, listens to its ad-s-ice, but never reveals to strangers what the voice from bej-ond the grave has told him. Nevertheless thousands of these Shamanist Kahnidis are officially classed as Christians. The harsh treatment of their \^-ives is said to be one of the chief causes of the conversions amongst the frontier popidations. To escape from the blows of their husbands these women take refuge with the missionary, and allow themselves to be baptized. Then the husbands come forward and cause themselves also to be baptized, in order to recover possession of their spouses, and thus two souls are gained to the " true faith." Most of the Tatars iu e 32G ASIATIC RUSSIA. the Ru.ssiim \-allo3's arc also baptized and ofRcially regarded as Cliristiaiis, although they are really Sharaanists, and have often forgotten their Christian names, still calling themselves "Dog," "Wolf," "Raven," "Vulture," after the national fashion. The chief missionary station in the Altai regions is Ulida, a village in the Upper Katun valle}', some GO miles above Biisk. Here is a curious collection of native documents, religious works published in Tatar, and popular songs collected by Radlov and Chivalkov. Of all the non-Slav races the Tatars are, on the whole, those who offer the greatest inert resistance to the progress of Russian civilising influences. Yet of many Tatar tribes little now survives bej^ond their names. The Kirghiz of the Upper Katim valley, completely isolated from their kinsmen of the western steppes, have become Russians in their agricultural habits, though still sj^eaking Turki or the Mongolian dialect of their Kalmuk neighbours. The Teleuts of the Biya vallej', and the Kumandes, besides various groups of " Black " Tatars, are also being gradually Russified. Helmersen and Radlov think the Teleuts are of Finnish race, although now speaking a Tiirki dialect resembling that of the Telcnguts. Over nine-tenths of the poindation in the Altai regions are Russians, descended from traders, officials, Cossacks, miners, soldiers, and exiles. Till 1865 the Russian peasantry were not permitted to colonise these highlands, which were the special domain of the Czar, reserved for the mining industr}-. Still the valleys are so fertile, and the demand for agricidtural produce so urgent, that thousands settled here even before that year. The Raskolniks especially possess several large villages, surrounded by floiu'ishing farms, and they already form about one-fifteenth part of the entire population. At present colonisation is making rajjid strides, and numerous new commimes ha^e been founded in the Biisk district, and even in the Kalmids territory. Some of the better class of villages belong to the descend- ants of fugitives said to have been criminals, but who must have mostly been Bezpopovtzi Raskolniks, all the inhabitants now belonging to that sect of Old Believers. They retreated before the advance of the miners, and formerl}' lived like savages in the more inaccessible valleys, some penetrating even into the Mongolian steppes, where they are believed still to survive. These were the so-called Kamenshiki, or " Rock People," most of whom accepted the Czar's authority in 1791, and built regular villages, where their descendants now lead honest, sober, and industrious lives. But in 1862 about fifty of them quitted the country in search of the mysterious " "WTiite "Water," probably the Lob-nor, ^^•hcre Prjevalsky heard of an independent Russian conunimity during his recent tra\els. Formerly the only advantage dcii^ed by the Russians from the Altai regions was due to the mines, all of which were discovered on the site of old " Chude " works. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century the Russians have sought for gold in the auriferous sands of the Altai rivers ; in 172o the first foundry was opened, and in 17-36 the argentiferous lead mines were discovered, which proved to be the most productive in the world during the latter half of the eighteenth century. The German miners, invited about 1750 to these regions in order to instruct the Crown serfs in the various branches of the industry, have become completely TOPOGEArnT. 327 absorbed iu tlie Slav population, and are now recognised only by a few Gennan technical expressions current in the local dialect. The Chinese slopes of the moimtains are not worked, nor are there any mines in the Eastern Altai districts, where crystalline rocks are of less frequent occnrrence. Most of the ores in the west and north are found in the palmozoic rocks, associated with granites, poi-phj-ries, diorites, or serpentines. The most abundant metals are silver and copper, besides gold, lead, zinc, iron, and in one place telluriiuu. Gold, silver, copper, nickel, and iron alone are at present extracted, but since the abolition of serfdom and the substitution of paid labour in 1861, the expenses, formerly less than half the profits, have gone on increasing at such a rate that several of the deeper mines have already had to be abandoned. The importance of the Altai as a mineral region wiU probably continue to decline, at least imtil the coal-iields of the Upper Tom basin are opened and connected by rail with the metal works. Meanwhile, agriculture and stock-breeding must be regarded as the chief resources of the Altai. In 1804 the course of the Irtish was first utilised for forwarding the metals to Russia. But craft of 3"2 tons, which reach Ust-Kamenogorsk from the port of the Tcrkniy-pristen mines in one day, take three days and often a week to return, so that during the open season a boat can at most make nine or ten trips. Of the land routes between the Ob basin and Mongolia, the most important is that between Biisk and Kobdo thi-ough the Chu3-a valley and Suok Pass. Yet Ugodai, the last iDcrmanent Russian station on this historic route, is a mere hamlet of twenty huts, some loO miles from the smnmit of the pass. Even the Russian encampment in the Upper Chuya valley is left in charge of the Kalmidis during winter. Topography. Although the Altai region is very sparsely peopled even in the neighbom-hood of the mines, still the Russian towns and A"illages are comparatively large. Barnaul, capital of all the Altai colonies, is one of the gayest and most flourishing towns in Siberia. Its industries are second in importance only to those of Irkutsk, west of the Ural provinces. As indicated by its name, it was a mere Kirghiz aul when Demidov founded his mining village on the left bank of the Ob, and in 1771 it became the capital of all the mineral region in the Altai. The great imperial foundr}' stands on an embankment damming the waters of the Barnaulka, above its junction with the Ob. But the works have been frequently at a standstill since the produce of the mines has fallen off. Here are also sOme free industries, such as tanneries, leather di-essing, bullet casting, and other establishments. The ioyra. also possesses a meteorological and magnetic observatory, and a public musemu of natural history and antiquities. In the district is the copper foundiy of Suzunskij'-zavod, on a small aiHuent of the Ob, producing about 540 tons of metal yearly. Zmeinogor&k, or "Snake Momit," formerly the rival of Barnaul, is now much reduced, its poiDulation having fallen from about 20,000 to 10,000. Standing on a bare hiU 1,100 feet above the Korbalikha torrent, which flows thi'ough the Alei to the Ob, Zmeinogorsk was long the chief centre of the Altai mining industry. About 328 ASIATIC EUSSIA. half of the silver produced in this region down to the middle of the nineteenth century came from the neighbouring mines, most of which are now half full of water. These mines were finally abandoned in 1869, and the large smelting works are now supplied with ores from the Upper Altai valleys farther south. At present the most active mining town is Zinja)iovsl;, at the foot of the "Eagle Mountains," in the heart of the Altai', in the mihealthy valley of the Beryozovka, a tributary of the Bukhtarma. Hitherto Ziryanovsk has produced about one-fourth of all the silver extracted from the Altai',* and with the tillage of Bukliturmin.sk it is also the chief centre of bee-fanning in this region. Riddcmk, so named from Bidder, who first sm-veyed its argentiferous load deposits, lies mid- way between Zmeinogorsk and Ziryanovsk, about the sources of the Ulba and Uba, Fig. 178. — Zmeinogoksk. Scale 1 : 70,000. 3,330 TarOs. and is the richest lead-producing district of the Ural. Near it is the famous granite peak of Ivanovskiy-belok, 6,730 feet high. LolicvsJny, at the chief bend of the Alei, west of Zmeinogorsk, is a busy place, which formerly employed J, '200 free hands and over 27,000 serfs, and which about 1860 annually produced on an average 12,800 lbs. of silver and 600,000 lbs. of lead. North-west of Barnaul, between the Ob and the Tom, are the numerous argentiferous mines of Salair, whose annual j'ield averages about £8,000. The coal and iron wealth of Kuznetzk, on the Tom, is very little worked. But, besides its metal ores, the Altai is rich in valuable rocks, some of which are worked up in • Yield of the Ziryanovsk mines from 1796 to 18.54 : — Silver 1,025,000 lbs., value 21,860.000 roubles. Lead 35,000,000 „ „ 2,162,100 „ OB BASIN. - 829 the Government works of Kolivan, 19 miles north-west of Zmemogorsk. Here are prepared some magnificent blocks of brown and smoked jaspar, marble, quartz, porphyry, and serpentine. But, as iu most of the Government works, the expenses greatly exceed the income. The chief trading-place in the Eastern Altai and Saj-an highlands is Biislc, on the right bank of the Birza, near its jimction with the Katun, the main head-stream of the Ob. It is thus conveniently situated for carrying on trading relations with Barnaul and the steppe on the one hand, and on the other with the Altai ^-alleys, and through the Suok Pass with Mongolia. Its merchants meet the Chinese dealers every year in a camping ground iu the middle of the swamps of the Chuya steppe, where they obtain their supplies of furs, cattle, and horses. But the exchanges, which in 1865 amounted to 200,000 roubles, have been greatlj^ reduced since Kashgaria has lost its independence. Ktiznetzh, or the " Blacksmith's Town," lying in the Upper Tom basin, opposite the confluence of the Kondora, has gradually lost its former importance. But since it has become the chief town of a district its locksmith and hardware industries and general prosperity have somewhat revived. Its coal-fields, stUl unworked, have an estimated area of 2,000 square miles. Of the summer retreats and towns devoted to pleasure the most important is AUaiskfDja sianitza, the Koton-karagai of the Kalmuks, founded in 1871 in the Upper Bukhtarma vallc}', 3,520 feet above the sea. Notwithstanding its great elevation, wheat, hemp, and flax are gro^ra in the surrounding district, while oats and barley yield returns up to 4,000 feet. III.— THE OB BASIISr. GovERN'MEXTS OF Akmoxinsk, Semipalatinsk, Tomsk, TunoLSK — Eastern Districts of the GOVEKXMEN'TS OF PeUM AND OREMIURG. The vast basin of the Ob, embracing an area of over 1,400,000 square miles, comprises all West Siberia, half of the Kirghiz domain, and even stretches south of the Altai into Chinese territorj^ But the northern portion of this inunense region, seven times larger than France, is still little more than a frozen solitude. The population, concentrated chiefly on the Asiatic sloi^e of the Urals, and in the central zone between the southern steppes and northern tundras, is so sparse that, if evenly distributed, it would give scarcely two inhabitants to the square mile. Few of the streams flowing through the Ob to the Arctic Ocean have their sources in the snowy valleys of the uplands. In the east the watershed between the Ob and Yenisei is in many places imperceptible, the tundra discharging its surface waters in both directions without any distinct parting-line. The inter- mediate zone is often occupied even hy swamps draining either way, according to the direction of the winds on the local rainfall. Farther south the watershed between the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins is irregularly indicated by rolling tracts or even hills. But this water-parting is diversely interrupted, and here also there occur 330 ASIATIC EUSSIA. marsh}' tracts, whose drainage has taken a northern or a southern coui'se under the slightest oscillations of the' land. The hydrograjDhy of the Ob is, in fact, clearly defined only towards the west by the Ural range, and south-eastwards by the Altai highlands and plateaux. It is in these uplands on the Chinese frontier that we meet with the Belukha glacier, the onlj' one occurring in the Ob basin. The Irtish Basin. The true head-stream of the main river is not the Upper Ob, which rises in the Eussian Altai, but the Irtish, fed by the waters of the Chinese Altai. The Irtish Fig. 179.— Lake Zaisan. Scale 1 ; 1,300,000. u/an Steji/ie ' '■'■/^,!}-:,;t,,,a.a»^,-;!m 4P E.orr, i.'£:¥f^ aitso' 84- 20' C.Perci"a 24 Miles, itself, the correct Mongol form of which is Erchis, is only an affluent of a partly underground river, which rises on the Kobdo plateau, and sweeps round the advanced spurs of the Altai north-westwards towards the great Lake Ulmigur, one of the largest in Asia. A small chain of hills runs between the east side of this lake and the Irtish; but the hills gradually disappear northwards, and near an -isthmus, where the stream is withiu 2 miles of the lake, there is seen the dry bed of an outlet, said to be filled every spring ^rith the rising of the Uliuigm-. Beneath this superficial bed a hidden stream certainly flows, as sho^^Ti by the comparative observations made on the discharge of the Irtish above and below the intermittent outlet. Some 12 miles higher up the volimic of the Irtish is about 635 cubic feet per second, whereas farther clo^vn it is three times greater without having received THE IRTISH BASIN. 831 any visible fresh affluent. This great increase must evidently be due to an under- ground tributary, which forms a continuation of the Upper TJlungur River by flo'«'ing from the lake of the same name. The Irtish, or " Black Irtish," which ought to be called the Ulungur, is already a considerable stream before entering Russian territory, and even before receiving the overflow of the Alpine Lake Marka through the Kaljir. Its mean dejith is nearly 10 feet, with a breadth of from 300 to 5G0 feet, and a mean discharge of about 13,000 cubic feet per second. After its junction with the Kaljir it enters Russian territorj', here forming several marshy branches, which slowlj^ make their way to Lake Zaisan, a still larger sheet of water than the TJlungur. This lake is about 60 miles long, at least during the floods, with a mean area of 730 square miles. But though three times larger, it is far shallower than Lake Geneva, averaging little Fig. ISO. — The Ust-K.\mexogorsk Defile. Scale 1 : 980,000. "^.. "' z' ^■^^JT TCZ^ ^^-jCfVw^'*"';' Oulbinsk , Dust KameriS^brsk'N if *^'j^{ 1. v/J ivV-at,-sr^ -Bpukhtarminsk ^■s:s^ — 12 Miles. over 25 feet deep. The Zaisan is not an Alpine, but rather a vast steppe lake, ■although the snowy crests of the Altai and Sauru ranges are visible through the poplars, -nollows, and aspens fringing its shores. It teems with fish to such an extent that the haids of the Kirghiz or Cossack fi.shermen seem Kke " miraculous draughts " to the stranger. Besides the species common to the lacustrine waters of Eurojje, it contains the nyelma, an excellent salmon, and carps much finer than those of the "West. The annual yield of fish amounts altogether to about 1,625,000 lbs., and its present name of Zaisan, or " Noble," is said to have been conferred on this lake by the Kalmuks, whom the sujjerabundant suppl}^ of fish saved from starvation in 1650. Water-fowl also frequent it in multitudes, but its shores are almost destitute of inhabitants. A steamer ascended the Irtish in 1864, to explore its waters and penetrate up the Black Irtish to the station of Ak-tubeh, on the Chinese frontier, and in 1880 the project was discussed of establishing a regular 832 ASIATIC RUSSIA. steam ser\ace between Tumen, the ZaTsan, and Black Irtish, a distance by water of about 9G0 mUes. At an elevation of 1,380 feet the "White" Irtish issues from the north side of the lake in a slow current, but after its junction with the Kui-chum, the jS'arim, and liukhtarma it becomes more rapid, and soon enters one of the wildest and most romantic gorges in the world, the Ust-Kamenogorsk defile, beyond which it assumes its normal north-westerly course. At this point, which formerly marked the southern limit of the Ob basin, it is about 1,1G0 feet above sea-level, and below Ust-Kamenogorsk the stream ramifies into several branches, enclosing grassy islands from 10 to 40 square miles in extent. During its lower coui-se from the Altai defile to its confluence with the Ob, the Irtish receives over one thousand Fig. 181. — Lakes Chany and Sakilasi is 1870. Scale 1 ; 1,500,000. C. ore. 49 C-Percorj . H,330 yards. affluents of all sizes, although hundrcd.-j of streams which formerly reached its banks are now lost in the swamps of the salt and arid steppes. A large portion of the level tract comprised between the Ob on the east, the Irtish and Om on the west and north, is kuo^^^l as the Baraba steppe, although rarely presenting the aspect of a true stcpj)e. Not a rock is anywhere to be seen, and the surface is pleasantly di^"crsLfied with groves and clusters of pine and birch, disposed as if by the hand of an artist in picturesque disorder. This natural park presents an endless variety of landscajies, and yet the only elements in the scene are its pines, birches, grass, and prairie flowers. In some places, however, this region assumes the apiiearaucc of a true stejDpe, with salt and marshy tracts, crossed by the great Siberian military route for a distance of 400 miles, from Omsk to Kolivan. But even here the cultivated lands are gi-aduall}- encroaching on the stepjie, and ninncrous colonists from Yoronej, Simbirsk, and Samai'a have already settled iu this " birch steppe," whose fertility is justly extolled, although the soil THE IRTISH BASIX. S38 consists ouly of a thin layer of black loam, resting on a bed of disintegrated micaceous schists. Since the middle of the century the Baraba has lost much of its moistiu-e, and some districts are already beginning to suffer from droughts. Yet the depressions are stUl covered with extensive shallow lakes. Of these the largest is Lake Chany, which has an area of 1,200 square miles, but is nowhere over 26 feet deep, and though teeming \vith fish when visited by Pallas, is now almost uninhabited. The deepest is Sartlam, which in some places is over 30 feet, and all present forms analogous to those of Sweden and Finland. Thus the Chany is divided into secondary basins by long parallel peninsidas with several islands, all disposed in the same north-easterly and south-westerly direction. The rivers flowing to Lake Chany, the mar.shes, and the low ridges separating the river basins also follow the same line. This remarkable imiformity may possibly be due to a great marine current, formerly setting towards the Aral Sea, though some geologists are inclined to attribute it to the action of the glaciers, which maj- at one time have reached these plains fi-om the Urals and Altai, here producing the same effects as have been observed in Finland and the Russian governments of Olonetz and Archangelsk. Lake Chany, like most of the lacustrine basins in the Baraba steppe, has no visible outflow to the Irtish, and, as the evaporation is greater than the rainfall, some saline reservoirs have been formed here and there. The water is still fresh' in the .south, where the rivers Kargat and ChuKm join the lake ; but in the centre it has become brackish, and in the western extremity quite salt. Yet there must be an underground outflow to the Irtish, either from the Chany or from some other neighbouring lakes, for near the village of Jelyezimskaya, on the right bank of the river, there are copious springs, by which the voliune of the Irtish is sensiblj^ increased. After its junction with the Om the Irtish describes a long curve towards the east, and then resumes its north-west course to its confluence ^"ith the Ishim and Tobol. Of these great tributaries the longest is the Ishim, the Isel of the Kii'ghiz, which has a course of about 1,000 miles. The region through which it flows has greatly diminished in moisture, as is evident from the numerous dried-up lakes and marshes, much reduced in size, which formerly drained to the Ishim. Although inferior to the Irtish in volvmie, the Tobol might be regarded as the real main stream of the Ob basin, the general direction of its valley being the same as those both of the Irtish and the Ob itself, below its confluence. Throughout its com-se it skirts the eastern slopes of the Urals, and it thus receives the larger streams flowing eastwards from this water-parting between the Ob and Volga basins. One of these streams is the Tura, whose course was followed by the first invaders of Siberia, and which, since the time of Yermak, has remained the chief historical highway- between European and Asiatic Russia. Formerly the Tobol joined the Irtish opposite the high cliff on which stands Tobolsk. But the rock being constantly undermined by the current, this city was threatened sooner or later with the fate of the old town of Sibir, which also stood on the " high " — that is, the right — bank of the Irtish. To avoid this danger Governor Gagarin, in 1716, VOL. VI. z 834 ASIATIC RUSSIA. emploj-ed the Swedish prisoners of war confined there to dig a canal about 2 miles long, which removed the mouth of the Tobol farther down, and thus enabled the engineers successfully to protect the base of the Tobolsk escarpments from the erosive action of the stream. Course of the Ob. The Upper Ob, which rises in the Altai, joins the Irtish 300 miles below Tobolsk. Its chief head-stream, the Katun, or " Queen," flows from the glaciers in the highest part of the range, but the main stream does not take the name of Ob till the confluence of the Katun and Biya, 390 miles below the Bielukha glacier. After Fig. 182. — Dkied-vp Streams ix the Bahnac'l District. Scale 1 : 3,170,050. '63' I.oFG. 60 MUes. emerging from the highlands, and at its junction with the Barnaulka, opposite Barnaul, capital of the Altai regions, it is little over 300 feet above the level of the sea. Here the steppe is already so level that, as in the Irtish valley, manj' streams expand into lakes and swamps before reaching the Ob. But it is probable that in former times, and under a more himiid climate, the more copious rivers, now repre- sented only by chains of small lakes, possessed more regular channels. The course of many of them towards the Ob is, so to say, little more than faintly traced, varying in length and distiuctness with the greater or less abundance of moisture from Pear to year. Owing to its slight incline, the Ob itself assumes in many places a lacustrine COURSE OF TKE OB. 335 character, ramifying into numerous branches, and widcnuig into permanent island- studded expanses. Its mean breadth varies from 2,650 feet to nearly 2 miles, and in the spring floods fi-om 20 to 25 miles, now assuming the proportions of a o-reat inland sea, as at Kolivan, where the opposite banks are invisible. Below the jimction of the Tom and Chulim it ramifies into a great number of branches, forming a continually shifting labj-rinth of channels, covering the whole plain. Duriag the five or six winter months these low-lj-ing waters are divided by the ice into a number of separate basins, which cease to flow and become stagnant lakes unfit for human use, and cut oif from all commimication with each other like the surface tarns often left on the steppes by dried-up rivers. The Ket, which joins the Ob above Narim, though not one of its great tributaries, is nevertheless na\-igable for nearly 600 miles, thus affording the best natural highway between the Ob and Yenisei basins. During the first invasion of Siberia the Cossacks followed this route, and ia the beginning of the seventeenth Fig. 183. — Projected Cwals between the Ob axd Yexisei. Scale 1 : 7,400,030. PoTpakh( E.of6 CPerron 60 Miles. century the Eussians erected two forts, one at its mouth, and the other at the head of its na^^gation, to protect their peltry stations from the attacks of the natives. Between the upper station and the Yenisei below Yeniseisk there is only a portage 62 miles long, and this is the only break in the vast network of navigable channels connecting the TJral rivers with the Baikal basin across 50° of the meridian, or nearlj' one-sixth of the circumference of the globe. The project of bridging over this gap is now being entertained, and since 1872 the scientific exploration has been resumed of all the rivers in the district enclosed by the Ob and Yenisei, where their courses approach nearest to each other. Careful surveys have already been made of the Chulim, which is navigable for steamboats as far as Achinsk, north- west of Krasnoyark, on the Yenisei, and of the Tim and Vakh, by which the two affluents of the Yenisei, the Sim and Yelogui, may be respectively reached. The Ket still seems to afford the greatest facilities for effecting a junction between the two main streams. But instead of ascending it to Makovskoye, near its source, it 7. 2 336 ASIATIC RUSSIA. is proposed to utilise the little Yazeva affluent, passing thence bj' a canal across a level marshy tract to the Kas, a tributary of the Yenisei. Here the portage is only 4,220 yards long, between two lakes standing at the same elevation above the sea. A junction canal, 4 feet deep and 50 feet wide, would give access to boats of about 30 tons burden, and the incUne either way is so slight that no locks woidd be needed. The only obstacles to the navigation would be the so-called lorn, or snags, which form dams at the windings of the stream, but which might easily be removed, as all of them rest on mud beds. "\Then this canal is completed there •n-ill be a great reduction in the freights, amounting possible to as much as 5 roubles per tea-chest. In 1825, when all the tea brought fi-oni Kiatkha to !\ijni- Novgorod was conveyed Fig. 184.— Network of Streams at the Ob and Ket Ju.vction. Scale 1 : 2,000,000. C. Pcrrcn 30 Miles. b}^ the rivers and portages, the merchandise passing by the village of Makovskoye was estimated at over 10,000,000 roubles. Below the Narim the Ob, after receiving the Tim, Yakh, and others scarcely less important than the Ket, continues its sluggish course first north-west and then west to the Irtish, which it joins through a network of intricate channels, whose navigation demands the most skilfid piloting. After their junction the two rivers, each about equal to the Danube in volume, again divide, as if a common bed were insufficient to contain this moving sea. The two streams, now respectively called the Great and Little Ob, continue their winding course to the estuary at distances, in some places, of from 20 to 25 miles, but everywhere connected by coimtless inter- COURSE OP THE OB. 837 mediate channels. The Little Ob, which is the left stream, is the narrowest and shallowest, but owing to its less raj^id current is preferred by craft ascending inland. The na^agation of the Great Ob, used chiefly by boats going seawards, is at times endangered by the north wind raising high waves against the down current. The confluence of the Ob and Irtish lies beyond the zone of cereals ; but the Lower Ob remains to its mouth within the limits of forest vegetation, its banks being fringed throughout with pines, firs, the larch, birch, and willow. Although less brilliant and varied in coloui' than those of Xorth America, the autmnnal tints of the Ob forests are still brighter than the foliage on the European seaboard. The banks of the Lower Ob everywhere consist of claj-s and sands, which are being constantly undermined by the current. Those of the Little Ob are very low, and often concealed by a dense growth of reeds, carex, and other aqiiatic plants. But those of the Great Ob rise in some places 200 feet above the stream, and are pierced at intervals by ravines through which the scrub descends to the water's 185. — Lower Course asd JIocth of the Ob. Scale 1 : 1,160,1X0. . 30 Miles. edge. Trunks of trees strewn along the foot of the cliff mark the limits of the last floods, while heaps of stones, granites, syenites, porphyries, schists, and conglomerates are yearly deposited by the ice, to be agaia swept farther on the following year when already embedded ia the banks. The Ob enters its vast estuary through a single mouth nearly 2 miles wide, and from 30 to 90 feet deep. The section of the gulf running west and east is often regarded as still belonging to the river itself; but ia this bay, some 30 miles wide, the normal current has entirely ceased. Other minor iulets are formed at the mouth of every influent. But the vast fiord of the Ob, stretching for over 480 miles towards the pole, as well as that of the Taz joining its east side, is still but partially explored, although formerly visited by the Khohnogori fishers from the Petchora, and again sm-veyed in recent times. In 1877 Dahl penetrated from the Kara Sea round the Yabnal peninsula, and through the gulf into the river. The commercial route to the Ob basin was thus thrown open, 338 ASIATIC EUSSL\. and its cereals, wool, tallow, hides, and furs may henceforth be shipped direct for the ports of West Europe. The river itself is navigable throughout nearlj"- the whole of its course, which, including the Ulungur as its farthest head-stream, may be estimated at about 3,400 miles in length.* But the na^•igable waterway is far more extensive. In simuuer all the large, and dm-ing the spring floods most of the secondar}'', affluents give access to flat-bottomed craft and steamers, affording a navigable highway of not less than 9,000 miles. Since 1844, when the first steamer was laimched on the Tura, the steam fleet has gone on yearly increasing, and in 1877 nimibered 34 vessels of 2,655 horse-power. On the other hand, none of the various schemes of canalisation between the Ob and Volga basins, and between the Ob and Kara Sea, have proved feasible. But Struve thinks the Petchora and Ob basins might be connected by a canal 50 miles long between the Kokj)ela and Voikar tributaries of the two main streams respectivelj'. It would be still easier to connect the Taz and the Yenisei by a canal running along the 66th parallel from the hamlet of Tazovka to Turukhansk. Inhabitants of the Ob Basin — The Vogitls. About half of the population of Siberia is concentrated in the southern regions of the Ob basin, in an irregidar zone stretching along both sides of the old historic highway and its modern continuation eastwards. This popidation consists exclu- sively of Slav elements, forming an Asiatic Russia in speech, manners, and cidtiire. Here the Russians have comj^letely replaced the Tatars, formerly the dominant race, but now scattered in detached groups over the steppes far from the towns and river banks. Some of these moi-e or less Russified Tatar communities are still met in the neighbourhood of Tobolsk, west of the Irtish, near the seat of theii' former empire. On the Irtish itself there also dwell certain Russian peasantry traditionally said to be of Tatar origin, but also resembling their ancestors only in the traits of their features. East of the Ob the Chulim valley is occupied by the Kizil, or "Red" Tatars, so called to distinguish them from the Kara, or "Black" Tatars of Biisk. Their speech, one of the purest of Turki dialects in its structui'e, is largely affected by Mongol elements, and has recently adopted many Russian tenns. But, like the Telengut dialect, it is distinguished from most other idioms of Turki stock by a complete absence of Arabic or Persian words. Never having adopted the faith of Islam, these Red Tatar Shamanists, who have now become orthodox Christians, have never had any relations with the Mussulmans of the south, and have thus remained free from all Mohammedan influences. On the other hand, the Kazaks or Kirghiz in the southern parts of the Ob basin and about the soui'ces of the Irtish form an ethnical group with the Kirghiz hordes of the Aralo-Casj)ian Course of the Ulungur .... Black Irtish to Lake Zaisan . Irtish from Lake Zaisan to the Ob Oh from the Irtish junction of the Gulf Total MUes. 300 (?) 360 (?) 2,000 750 3,410 miles. INHABITANTS OF THE OB BASIN— THE VOGULS. 839 region. Manj^ of these nomad tribes have pastures and camping grounds in both basins, though the administrative divisions here coincide on the whole with the ethnical limits. Thus the territory of the Kirghiz, even where it encroaches on the Irtish valley, is assigned to the general government of Central Asia, while the Bashkirs of the Asiatic Ural districts are iacluded, with theu- kinsmen of the western slopes, in the European governments of Orenburg and Perm. In the northern division of the Ob basin all the aborigines, whether Voguls, Ostiuks, or Samoyedes, belong not to the Turki, but to the Finnish stock. Since they have been di'iven east by the Russians the Yoguls have dwelt chiefly on the Siberian slopes of the Urals north of Yekaterinburg, and especially in the valley of the Konda, a tributary of the Irtish. .A few families reside on the European side of the mountains, but most of those who are here met are hunters in pui'suit of game from the east. The Vogids are of the same branch of the Finnish race as the Ostiaks, and both were tiU recently collectively known by the common name of Manzi. The former stdl retain the small oblique eyes characteristic of the race, but most of them have become Eussified in di-ess, habits, and pm-suits. Hence the difficulty of ascertaining their real number, which is officially stated to be 4,500, but is by different observers variously estimated at 18,000 to 30,000. The Yogul hmiters have best preserved the customs of the tribes which Yermak had to overcome on his way to the kingdom of Sibir. With their thick fm-s and hoods adorned with the ears of animals, they look at a distance like wild beasts of the forest. But they are really a harmless and even timid race, whose mUd expres- sion is increased by their shaven faces, which would else in winter be changed by their frozen breath to one mass of ice. They are never kuo^Ti to rebel against the orders of the traders by whom they are employed, and treated as genuine serfs. They spontaneously pay the taxes to the civil authorities, and bind themselves beforehand to do all that may be required of them. Hence they naturally accepted Christianity, at least in appearance, when ordered to do so in 1722. But every family still cherishes its household gods, represented either by quadi-ujjeds with scaly tails, or by the masked figure of a man with a tall head-dress. These rude figm-es are attached to the bark of a pine, fir, or birch tree, whence the Russian term Shaitanka, or Shaitanskaya (" Satanstead "), applied to so many forest clear- ances. The Yoguls also worship a great national idol, doubtless the " Old Woman of Gold " mentioned by Herberstein. Its sanctuary, say the hunters, is found in the midst of swamps and gloomy forests ia some upj)er valley of the Urals. Women passing near the haUowed site dare not even look upwards to the trees shading the deity, for a single glance would cost them their lives. During the night of the feast the men gather round the idol and kindle a scaffolding of stakes, which burns like a huge torch. On the return of darkness a member of the tribe ajjproaches a horse tethered to a tree, and strikes him with, a pointed knife. The blood is received in a sacred goblet, of which every Yogul drinks. The rite is supposed to have failed should the horse die at once, or before all have bad their share of the blood. The Yoguls are also said to worship the sun, invoking it for fine weather either directly or through their Shamauist priest, iu whom they have great confi- 310 ASIATIC EUSSIA. dence. " Our shamans," they say, " are bcttei' ihuu the popes. Tlic popes foretell the things of death, the shamans those of life." Like so many other Finnish peoples, the Voguls have their family totems tattooed on their heads, arms, and legs. These figui-es, mostly representing bows and arrows, squares, circles, or arabesques, are not merely ornamental, but possess a sacred character, symbolizing the family traditions and genealogies from genera- tion to genei-ation. In the forest the Yogul carves his totem on the trees to indicate his passage to those who may pass by after him. He also attaches it to the religious or civil documents presented to him by the priests or Government officials, and he endeavoiu's to cui'e sores and ulcers by tattooing the skin close to the part affected. But, in spite of all these sj-mbolic tattooings, the Yoguls are probably the least sociable of the Siberian aborigines. In summer they live in isolated families, each pursuing the forest game ; in winter they pitch their tents or build their huts at considerable distances one from the other, being nowhere grouiDed together in villages. Even the family spirit seems but slightly developed. The himter may have one or more -wives according to his means, but the least dis- tui-bance dissolves the imion, and the husband will then often live quite alone, accompanied only by his reindeer and dog. Most of the old men thus forsaken by their wives die a solitary death, victims generally either of himger or cold. Hence burials also are attended with little ceremony. A grave is dug on the spot where the body is found, and with it are buried the arms of the departed together, with a supply of tobacco and brandy, but no salt, which is uukiiQ-mi in the Yogul cuisine. The Ostiaks. The chief nation in North-west Siberia is that of the Ostiaks of Eussian and other Em'opean wi-iters, but who call themselves Kondi-Khu ("People of the Khonda River "), As-Khu, As- Yak (" People of the Ob "), or simpty Manzi — that is, " Men." To As- Yak some trace the term Ostiak, which others identify with the Tatar Ushtiak, or " Stranger," or to the Russian " Chud," which has the same sense, and which is generally applied b\' the Slavs to the ancient races of Siberia. According to the ethnographic charts the Ostiaks would appear to occupy a vast domain stretching from the Ob estuary to the middle com-se of the Irtish, and from the Urals to Nijnyaya Tunguska. But this region, of some 400,000 square miles, is mostly a solitude, in which the Ostiaks, according to the latest estimates, number scarcely 25,000 souls altogether. The names of many tribes mentioned at the beginning of the present century seem to have vanished with the tribes themselves. The important memoirs of Castren and Radlov on the languages of these peoples are aU the more precious that they all seem destined to rapid extinction as inde- pendent ethnical groups. Several Ostiak communities near the Russian settlement* have already lost their national speech, and are known only by tradition to have belonged to the old stock. The Russified Ostiaks are said to be generally of smaller stature, but more prolific, than those who have preserved their racial purity. When the Cossacks conquered Siberia the Ostiaks, who opposed them with THE OSTIAKS. 341 uumerous armies, had a complete uatioual orgaiiizatiou, aud dwelt iu regularly built towns. In the single expedition of 1501 the Russians destroyed forty-one of these fortilied places, the ruins of some of which are still to he seen in the Obdorsk district. Kow the Ostiaks have become mere hunters and fishers, dwellinsr in wretched hovels, abjectly submissive to their liussian masters, and only too glad to pay their taxes whenever they are not prevented by their extreme poverty. So rapid is the decrease of the race in some districts that it has been attributed not only to famine, but to the sterility of the women and mortality of the children, two- thirds of whom j)erish in their first year. The births are also diminished, on the one hand, bj' polygamy, on the other by celibacy, occasioned by the difficulty of paying the kalim. Yet hunger and roisery would alone suffice to explain the decay of the race. The tribute exacted by the Russian Government had formerly to be paid in jjeltry. But the fiu'-bcaring animals disappear with the destruction of the forests, and the Ostiaks are now bound to pay in specie. Being thus unable to refund the advances made for corn, their ^^^nter supplies are often stopped, and then whole families jjerish of famine fever. The extinction of the race is also accelerated by their love of di'ink, and the condition of some tribes is altogether so deplorable, and their approaching extinction so inevitable, that it has been proposed to distribute the children amongst the Russian families and leave the adults to their fate. Although on the old maps their territory bears the name of Yugria, the ^Jresent Ostiaks cannot be regarded as the pure representatives of the Ugrian family, of which the Himgarian Magyars are a branch. No pure Ostiaks are found south of the 60th parallel, where the crania present different types, although all are more or less brachycephalic, some approaching the Mongol, others the Lapj) form. The Ostiak dialects also, which of all the Finnish idioms most resemble the Magyar, show obvious relations, on the one hand, to the Tatar, on the other to the Mongolian. Relying on this twofold relationship, Castren assigns to the race an Altaic origin, for in the Altai highlands alone they coidd have come in contact both with Tatars and Mongols. Like other Finnish dialects, the Ostiak language is very harmonious. Its phonetics include a sibilant analogous to the English th, but the letter / is wanting. The Ostiaks are physically rather smaller, but when well fed quite as robust as the Russians. They have round features, arched forehead, prominent cheek bones, short and round chin, black and slightly oblique, but very sparkling eyes. The hair is black and pliant, and the beard very thin, as amongst most Asiatics. As with other Finnish peoples, the t}'pe of the young women approaches far nearer to the Mongolian than does that of the adults. The district of Obdorsk, chief centre of the Ostiak tribes, represents, both ethnically and geographically, the conditions which prevailed in Europe during the reindeer period. Like the Europeans of that epoch, the Ostiaks eat both carnivorous and graminivorous animals, the fox and allied species being their favourite food. They devour the raw flesh, as did the troglodytes of the Weser valley, alwaj-s beginning with the intestines, which are regarded as the tit-bits. Stone, horn, aud 842 ASIATIC EUSSIA. bone arc still cliieflj- used in the fabrication of their implements, which are cxactlj^ like those of the old European cave men. The bear's tooth is their amulet, the symbol of their pledged word, the remedy for most complaints. The mats plaited by the Ostiak women resemble those of the Swiss lake dwellers quite as much as they do those of the modern Kamchadale tribes, just as the instruments used by them in weaving their yarns are identical with those still foimd in North Russia, and which certainly date from prehistoric times. Political oppression and usury have destroyed the national imity and civilisa- tion of the Ostiaks, and caused them to abaudou their old to\\-ns. Still many large communities have retained the old spirit of solidarity, the members regarding themselves as relatives, and mutually aiding each other. Thus the successful hunter shares the spoils of the chase with those who return empty-handed. Owing to their strict honesty, differences are rare between members of the federation ; but when they arise appeal is made to an elder, whose decision is final. In the neighbourhood of Obdorsk family quarrels are settled by the prince descended in direct line from the chief appointed by Catherine II. The prince and elders receive no subsidy from the peojile, but neither they nor the shamans are above accepting presents from their subjects. From time immemorial every Ostiak federation has had its special gods, protectors of the race, guarded by the shamans, who are at once the jiriests, prophets, doctors and hazards of the tribe. The sacred groves contain himdrcds of these deities, rudely carved fignres of divers forms, often resembling the Polynesian idols. Each family has also its gods, cut, like the others, out of wooden blocks, and mostly dressed in red garments, with tin heads, and often armed with swords and coats of mail. But above aU. these tribal and familjr divinities the great god is throned in the " seventh world," clothed in the light of dawn, and speaking with the voice of thunder and the storm. This is Turm, or Tiu-um, whose name recalls that of the Scandinavian Tor, or the Taraun of the Gauls. No one dare invoke him, for he hears not even the shaman's praj'er, and is guided only by the immutable laws of justice or of destinj\ Hence no offerings are made to him, and to his sons and other inferior deities, including the St. Nicholas of the Russians, are reserved the sacrifices of reindeer and sheep (sometimes immolated in the church itself), the presents of furs, antlers, and other precious objects. At the same time the shaman alone can render these offerings acceptable ; he alone can make his voice reach the ears of the gods in his chants and beating of the drum. A ribbon at the end of a pole held before the idol's mouth indicates by its flutterings the divine will. The shamans also are alone authorised to work miracles, which are regarded as such not only by the natives, but by the Russians themselves. For them the "black religion " is no less etficacious than theii- ovm, although it acts in virtue of the e^-il spirit. Amongst most of the Siberian populations the shamans are a sort of half- divine beings, controlling the hidden forces of nature, conjm-ing the elements, healing maladies, detecting the secrets of the future, holding familiar converse with the good and evil spirits of heaven and earth. " To the hero brute force, but to the shaman the words that give strength ; to the hero bow and arrow, but to the THE OSTIAKS. 843 sliaman the power in virtue of which the arrow hits or misses the mark, the wound kills or not. To the hero noise and clatter, what we see and what we hear, but to the shaman what we neither hear nor see, silent ■wisdom, the science of causes and the knowledge of things." Wrangell himself admits that he could never look on a shaman without a sort of awe. But this superhmuan power is not hereditary, nor does the shaman select his disciples from his own family. If he observes in the tribe a yoimg man, thiu, pale, and haggard, subject to sudden paroxj-sms of fury or epUepsj-, fond of solitude, holding nightly vigils, him he chooses as his successor. He first strives to regulate his fits by magic remedies, then subjects him to a period of novitiate, and teaches him the art of working wonders. The shaman's magic is a veritable science, in so far as it imparts an understanding of certain physiological phenomena with a view to profit. Occasionally the gods of one family or tribe pay a visit to those of another. Then take place the great ceremonies, warlike dances that have lost their meaning, mimicry of hunting scenes, much playing on the domhra, a stringed instrument like the tombora, borrowed by the Magyars from the Southern Slavs. Dancing ends with a banquet, of which the gods partake, and at which the shamans smear their faces with blood. But the deity must show his gratitude for the offering ; its \o\\xe is discussed with him, and he is sometimes induced to be more moderate in his demands, more generous in his dealings. There are also wicked gods, such as the water god, who is sometimes appeased by di'owning a reindeer in the river. Ideas of sanctity or magic are associated with everything in nature distinguished by its strength, size, or solitary grandeur. The cedar towering above the forest pines is a sacred object, as is also the bear, " son of Tm'um," and representative of justice on earth. T\'hen he is slain in the chase the hunter implores forgiveness, for five daj's afterwards performing divers ceremonies in presence of the body, intermingled in some tribes with blows and insults. No oath is so sacred as that taken " by the jaw of the bear," for he sees everything, knows all things, whether alive or dead. Like most of the Finnish tribes, the Ostiaks pay great respect to their departed brethren, taking care to provide them with everything they needed on earth — sleigh, javeUn, harpoon, axe, knife, hearth-stone, fuel, and at least a semblance of food. Parents also keep a figure of the dead, di'essing and imdi-essing it, placing it at the table and putting it to bed. But after three years they regard the death as a settled point, for the body is now decomposed, and the puppet buried with the remains in a grave decked with reindeer horns, carved images, tinkling bells, and streaming ribbons. In the " third world " there are no more ailments, no more Russian officials, no more taxes to paj-. Unfortimately the Ostiaks never enter this heaven, but remain in the " second world," which lies beyond the Gulf of the Ob, at the other side of the ocean. The Ostiak wife is purchased like an ox, and always regarded as impui'e. She is even nameless, and, as with the Samoyedes, she is excluded from the part of the tent reserved for the provisions. In some tribes the husband and her own children are even accustomed to fumigate the place she has occupied. She never inherits anj-thing, but herself forms part of the family inheritance. Nevertheless the mild 344 ASIATIC RUSSIA. cliaracter of the race protects her from all violence, and for the genial good-liuniour and kindliness of the husbands many Ostiak families might serve as models to their Russian neighbours. In the south and along the Ob, where Tatar influences preceded those of the Slavs, the women are obliged to go veiled, or else to turn aside in the presence of the men. In other res^jects all the Ostiaks resemble the Samoyedes in their habits, di-ess, and speech, and, like them, live on their reindeer herds. The Samoyedes of the Ob and Taz estuaries and Lower Yenisei valley belong to the Ym-ak stock, and are consequently allied to those of Xorth-east Europe. They are the same small, timid, moody, and hospitable race, though they still practise, the reliffion of blood, and force bits of raw flesh between the teeth of their idols. The Eastern Samoyedes, met here and there south of the Taimir peninsiila as far as the Khatanga Fiord, form another group, that of the Tavgi, ofteuer knowoi to the Russians as the Dikaya Orda, or " Savage Horde," not because less civilised, but because they have not yet been baptized, and have remained more independent than the other Samoyedes. They keep aloof from the Russian traders, priests, and officials ; but in their progress northwards, beyond the Slavs, Timguses, and Yakuts, they have nowhere reached the sea. The coast region they regard as belonging by right to the " white bear people," and seriously relate how their frequent attempts to conquer that territory were defeated by the bears, who always unfairly pitted twelve of their men against eight Samoyede warriors. Some few tribes are scattered much farther south in the Upper Yenisei basin beyond the districts settled by the Russians. These are the Kamasses, or Kamas- sintzes, who occupy the banks of the Kan and Mana, south-east of Krasnoyarsk. Castren regards them as the purest of the race, being those who have remained in their primitive homes near the Altai Mountains. Several of the surrounding Tatarized or Mongolized tribes state that their forefathers spoke a different language from theii- present speech, and Castren assumes that this must have been of Same or Finnish stock. Driven by the Tatars from their native vaUe3-s, the Samoyedes followed the Yenisei and Ob north and north-west, leaving colonies here and there in the regions less exposed to attack, but obliged in many places to change their name, language, and usages, according to the populations with whom they came in contact. Thus during the Tatar rule most of them became absorbed in the Tiirki element. On the right bank of the Ob and in the valleys of its eastern tributaries, the Chulim, Ket, and Tim, there are about 4,000 Samoyedes, usually grouped with the Ostiaks, and who will probably ere long come to be regarded as Russians. The Ural Mining Districts. The Slav element is relatively very dense in the portion of the government of Perm comprised in the Ob basin, and which has already a population of about one million. While naturally benefiting by the advantages derived from its proximity to Europe, this region still relies on its own resources for its relative importance m THE URAL MINING DISTRICTS. 345 the empire. The Central Urals are the chief mining country in Russia, vieldino- the precious metals, iron, coal, and salt in abundance. As on the European slopes, the crj-stalline rocks, and the Silurian, Devonian, and triassic formations of the higher ridges and lateral spurs, have been partially disintegrated and strewn alono- the eastern foot of the mountains, and amongst these masses of debris are foinid the valuable minerals bj' which the Slavs have been attracted to this region. Fiscal reasons have induced the Government to groujo in one administrative pro^'ince the Fig. 186. — Lakes and Marshes ix the Iset Basin. Scale 1 : 453,000. erscr E.of G erso' ji C- Perron GMiles. mining districts of both slopes, whereas the natural limits ought to foUow either the water-parting between the Ob, Petchora, and Volga basins, or else the depres- sion of the Irtish, coinciding with the ancient maritime strait between the Caspian and Arctic Ocean. The actual administrative frontiers between the two continents have been traced almost at haphazard, obliquely crossing the rivers, and intersecting without any geographical system the region of lakes, swamps, fore.sts, and uncertain slopes which stretch east of the Ural range. 810 ASIATIC EUSSIA. About the begkuiiug of the eighteenth century the mineral wealth of this country began first to be utilised by the establishment of smelting works on the sites of the old " Chude " mines. The growing importance of the district, the large revenue derived by the Government from its resources, and especially the colossal fortunes rapidly made by a few lucky speculators, soon drew attention to these highlands, which have since become one of the classic lands of geology. As many as 100,000 hands have here been employed at a time ; but since the discovery of the Califoruian and Australian " El Dorados " the relative importance of the Urals as a mineral-producing land has been greatly reduced. Still, although the copper ores of the Yekaterinburg district cannot compete in the European market with those of Australia, Chili, or Boll^-ia, the iron ores of the Urals, equalling in value the best fomid in Sweden, must always retain their value for Russia, while for its beautiful malachites and other rocks the Ural range stiU holds the first place. The railway now connecting the two chief towns of the province, Perm and Yekaterinburg, wUl aid in the more rapid development of these treasures, which have scarcely been hitherto utilised except for roj'al residences and some jDrivileged musemns. The malachite deposits are conveniently situated near the railway station, which bears the name of " Asia," as if to remind the European traveller that he has entered another continent. At Nijne-Tagilsk, already noted for its gold, platinum, and iron, a pure block of magnificent malachite weighing over 300 tons has been found at a depth of 300 feet from the surface. The Yisokaya- gora Hill, which has supplied the furnaces of TagUsk and Neviansk since 1720, consists of a huge mass of iron, containing at least 6,000,000,000 cwt. of ores, about two-thirds of which are pure metal. Topography of "West Siberia. The old cajjital of this mining district is Vcrkho-Tiirie, .so called from its position in the valley of the Upper Tui-a. It was foimded in 1598 on the site of Nerom- kura, the Gorodishche of the Chudes or Yoguls, and remained for over one hundred and fifty years the commercial centre of all the mining districts. Here Is the oldest monastery in Asiatic Russia. But It lost all its Importance when, in 1763, the new route was opened much farther south between Perm and Yekaterinburg. From the same cause its neighbour Pelim, on the Tavda, was soon reduced to an obscure hamlet. All the mines and metal works of the Upper Tura basin constitute the Goro- Blagodat district. The mountain of this name is a mass of magnetic ii'on, 1,560 feet high, on the frontier of Em-ope and Asia. According to the legend this remarkable lodestone mountain was revealed to the Russians by a Yog\il, who was burnt alive by his countrymen, for having thus attracted the foreigners into the land. Strong native magnets are now seldom found here, the best specimens coming from Mount Kashkanar (2,800 feet), overlooking the town of Nljne- Turinsk. The valley of the Tagil, which joins the Tura within the limits of the Perm government, is richer In metal works even than the Upper Tiu-a basin ; but the TOPOGRAPHY OF WEST SIBERIA. 347 iniuiug iiidiistiy has also been extended to the valley of the Upjaer Noiva, which rises a little east of the source of the Tagil in the same uplands. Here are the famous Neviansk, or Neivinsk works, established in 1699. In 1702 Peter the Great secured thom in " perpetuity " to the miner Dcmidov, including in the grant a tract of 3,212,000 acres. Like Pisa, Neviausk boasts of its leaning tower, a heavy pile lacldng the elegance of the Italian structiu-e. Alapayevsk, east of N^eviansk and on the same river Neiva, is also an active mining centre, its iron and copper works employing thousands of smelters and miners. The chief entrepot of all these highland towns and villages is Irhit, at the junction of the rivers Irbit and Nitza. Originally a mere Tatar sloboda surrounded by waste tracts and woodlands, Irbit took rank as a city in 1775, in recompense for its loj'alty to Catherine II. during the insurrection of Pugachov. Since then it has not greatly increased in size, but during the month of February it becomes every year the Nijni- Novgorod of Asiatic Russia. Its empty houses are now filled with visitors fi-om every part of the empire, numbering, according to the state of trade, from 12,000 to 20,000. Since the beginning of the century its trade has increased more than tenfold, and its exchanges amounted in 1879 altogether to 99,263,000 roubles. Irbit has gradually become the great provision market for the whole of Siberia, and through it European Russia supplies its inhabitants as far as the Pacific seaboard ^^th all their requirements, recei\'ing in exchange chiefly fui's and hides. But the fair once over, Irbit sinks to the position of a dull provincial town. The neighbouring iron mines have lost much of thcii' former importance, though the " Irbitskiy-zavod " smelting works, 40 miles south- west of the town, still jDroduce about 12,000 tons of iron yearly. After watering the Turinsk district and receiving the Nitza, the Tura flows north-east towards Tumen, one of the great cities of Siberia. This place was already famous before the arrival of the Russians, and its old walls figure on Herberstein's map of 1549. The Siberian Tatars stiU know it by the name of Jenghiz-tora, or " City of Jenghis," attributing its foundation to the Mongolian conqueror. Situated at the converging point of numerous routes, at the western extremity of the chief water highway in Siberia, and forming the eastern terminus of the great birch avenue planted by Catherine II. from Nijni-Novgorod to the Ural mining districts, Tumen has become one of the chief trading-places in the Ob basin. Like Irbit, it has its yearly fairs, at which the exchanges in tea and other merchandise amount to upwards of a million roubles. But it is chiefly a manu- facturing town, growing yearly in importance, and already claiming to be the " Manchester of Siberia." It produces most of the carpets sold in Russia, and amongst its numerous factories are steam-engine works, a tannery in which hides are prepared to the yearly value of about a million roubles, and building yards for the steam fleet of the Ob basin. The surrounding towns and villages also produce quantities of wooden wares, household utensils, and boxes of all sorts, and about 50,000 sleighs and carts are annually made in the district. Tumen is the chief depot of the steamers pljTiig on the Ob, although connected with the river na%aga- tion only during the spring floods. In summer the boats are seldom able to ascend 343 ASIATIC EUSSL\.. Fig. 187. — Yekaterinburg and Berezovskiy. Scale 1 : 430,000. the Turn, niid u.sually stop at Artonionoia, on tlie Tobol, midway between Tumcn and Tobolsk. Still less advantageously situated for fluvial navigation is Yel-aterinhurg, lying at the eastern foot of the Urals, which, however, here rise scarcely more than 6-50 feet above the town. But it is conveniently placed for overland communica- tion, and forms at present the Asiatic terminus of the European railwaj^ S5'stem. It also occupies a central position between the northern and southern raining districts of the Urals, 6 miles south-west of Beryozov, or Beresoi-Hkiij-zaro'l, which till recently derived much importance from its gold and platinum mines, discovered in 1820. The metal works of Yerkh- Isetskiy, forming a north-western suburb of the city, and tho.se of Nijne- Isetskiy a little south-east of it, have also acquired considerable importance, especially from their blast furnaces. Yekaterinburg, which is one of the finest cities in the empire, occupies a gentle slope on the banks of the Iset, which here broadens to a navigable lake fringed with verdure. Lofty white houses, with green sheet-iron roofs resembling slabs of malachite, rise above the picturesque wood cot- tages, and are themselves overlooked b}^ the domes and belfries of the churches, from which a view may be had of the Urals in the distance. Founded in 1722, Yekaterinbiu-g soon rose to importance as the centre of an extensive mining district. It is the residence of the inspectors of mines, forming a sort of government apart, and its stone polishers forward to Europe porphj'ry vases, malachite and rhodonite tables, and a thousand objects in topaz, ja.spar, and rock crystal, all admirably cut, but betraying little variety of design. The Government mint, where copj)er and even gold and platinum coins were struck, has been abandoned ; but its loss has been compensated by large machinery and other private works. Here are a meteorological observatory, and the Society of the " Natiu-alists of the Urals," which publishes interesting memoirs on the geology, flora, fauna, and ethnologj^ of these highlands. The society was founded in 1872, and in 1876 it had already nearly seventy stations in various parts of the Urals, whose comparative tables are of great vise in acquiring a knowledge of the local climate. In the neighbourhood are many objects of interest, such as the ■ 6 Miles. TOPOGRAPHY OF WEST SIBERIA. 349 numerous blocks of stratified granite between 2 and 3 miles south of Lake Shartash, and from their form known as " stone tents." One of the rocks on the river Pishma bears inscriptions in an unknown language, and in a character far more elegant than those in use amongst the Altai' and Yenisei peoples. The other towns east of Yekaterinburg in the Perm government are Kamishlov on the Pishma, Dalmatov and Shadrinsk on the Iset. In the south the most important place is Trditzh, conveniently situated on the Orenburg-Omsk route at the junction of two fertile valleys, and on the edge of the steppe. But since the Orenburg-Tashkend route has become the maiu highway between Europe and Turkestan, Troitzk has lost much of its former importance. In the Shadi'iusk district is the small town of Krestovoye, whose fair, next to that of Irbit, is the best attended on the Asiatic slope of the Urals. Its exchanges amounted in 1875 to 8,350,000 roubles. Kurgan, on the left bank of the Tobol, but beyond the limits of the Perm government, recalls the former existence of a royal burial-place 560 feet in circum- ference, and surrounded by a wall and ditch. After extracting a quantity of gold and sUver objects the Russians converted the mound into a fortress, which, however, they were obliged to abandon, owing to the erosions of the Tobol. The mditary colony was then removed 5 miles farther down, and gradually developed into a flourishing trading-place. Yalutorovsk, also on the left bank of the Tobol, was foimded in 1641 on the ruins of an old Tatar city, and is a busy place during the horse fair. The surrounding district, the most densely peopled in Siberia, is very productive in corn, cattle, tallow, and hides. On the Ishim, which flows parallel with the Tobol to the Irtish, are several important places. Akmolinsk, capital of a district near the sources of the river, is much fi-equented by the surrounding Kirghiz tribes. Farther west is the old Cossack stanitza of Athasar, at the junction of the Ishim and Atbasar. Petropavlovsk, on the right bank of the Ishim, although beyond the Kirghiz territory, is the centre of a large trade with the nomads, over 3,000 of whom have here settled down iu sedentary commimities. Ishim, about midway between Petropavlovsk and the mouth of the river, is visited by over 10,000 strangers during the December fair, at which the exchanges amount to 5,000,000 roubles. In the siUTounding lacustrine steppe there are over 300 basins, which are alternately lakes well stocked with fish and rich meadow lands. They were dry in 1841, began to be flooded in 1859, and in 1864 the water had everywhere resumed its normal level. The first place on the Irtish deserving the name of town is Ust-Kamenogorsk, situated, as indicated by its name, at the " issue of the mountain gorge," near the mining region. The copper mines of Bielo- Udovskiy, in the vaUey of the Glubokaya to the north-east, employ about 1,000 hands. Lower down, Semvpalatuisk, capital of a government, stands on the left bank of the river, but has often had to change its site, owing to the erosive action of the stream and the encroachment of the sand dunes. Its Russian name of Semi-Palat, or " Seven Buildings," is due to the seven neighbouring heaps of ruins, formerly used as temples by the surrounding Kalmuks. In the adjoining Ablaikit valley are the ruins of another Buddhist VOL. VI. A A 350 ASIATIC RUSSIA. temple. The large trade formerly carried on by Semipalatinsk with the Chinese town of Chiiguchak has been abnost comjjletely suppressed by the recent troubles in Kashgaria. Its commercial relations are now chiefly with Tashkend and Bokhara. Below Semijjalatinsk there are no towns till we reach Omsk, which occupies both banks of the Om at its junction with the Irtish, and on the main Siberian highway in the zone of Russian colonisation, between the Southern Kirghiz and Northern Tatar populations. Omsk is the present capital of West Siberia, and its old fortress has become the residence of the civil and military administrators. Here are a military gj-nmasium with 350 students, a museum of natural history, and since 1877 a branch of the Russian Geographical Society. East of Omsk the main route ascends the Om valley to Kainsk, midway between the Irtish and Ob, and in the centre of the Baraba steppe. Amongst its inha- bitants are several himdi'ed Jews, banished to this part of Siberia for smuggling. For a distance of 600 miles along the Irtish between Omsk and Tobolsk the only town is Tara, standing on the left bank, opposite the confluence of the river Tara. It is a much older place than Omsk, and was formerlj' the head-quarters of the military expeditions organized to reduce the Kirghiz. Peter the Great caused 700 of its Raskolnik inhabitants to be butchered for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and since then Tara, h'ing beyond the great Siberian highway, has remained nearlj' stationary. Tobolsk, former capital of all Asiatic Russia, and still the chief town of a government, is also a decaj^ed place, taking for population the sixth rank onJij^ amongst Siberian cities. Yet it occupies a position of vital importance at the confluence of the Irtish and Tobol, in the very centre of the West Siberian fluvial na\-igation. But it lies beyond the 58th parallel, near the limits of cereal vegetation, and has ceased to be a station on the main Siberian highway, which was formerly deflected northwards to pass by the governor's palace, and which now runs from Tunien, through Yalutorovsk and Ishim, straight to Omsk. But it stiU remains the rallying-place of the Russians banished to Siberia, and the seat of the " administration of the exiles." When visited by Falk in 1772 it had a population of 15,000, which has since then remained nearly stationary. All its old Tatar and early Russian monmnents have disappeared, destroyed either by the Cossacks or by the two fires which wasted the place in the eighteenth centmy. But with its painted domes and kreml, or citadel, commanding the lower quarters on the banks of the Irtish, Tobolsk still remains one of the most imposing cities in Siberia. Its fish market is one of the best supplied in the world, annually drawing about 8,900 tons from the Lower Ob, for which the Ostiak fishers receive probabh^ no more than 10,000 roubles, but which realise on the spot at least 1,000,000 roubles. Below Tobolsk there are no towns on the Irtish ; but Samarova, on a hiU commanding the alluvial plains of the Irtish and Ob, which are lower down con- nected hj a network of canals, is a noted place, occupj-ing the site of a former Ostiak capital. But the aborigines have long been replaced by the Russian Tamshchiki, or " conductors," engaged in the transport trade. O O LIBRARV :■=■■ THE TOPOGRA.PHY OF WEST SIBEEIA. 851 North of the Altai and the Barnaul plains there are no large towTis on the banks of the Ob. Kolivan has acquired some importance as a fishing station and market for farm produce. But the centre of trade in this region is Tomsk, near the right bank of the Tom, some 600 miles above its junction with the Ob. Of all the Siberian cities Tomsk probably most resembles a Russian town in the archi- tecture of its houses, the splendour of its shops, and its general coimnercial activity. The Cossacks of Tomsk have been the true conquerors of Siberia, and their services were recognised in the seventeenth centuiy by the title of "Sons of Boj-ards," con- ferred on them by the Czar. Some himdreds of gold miners find profitable employment in the auriferous districts of the south and south-east, which, though less rich than those of East Siberia, can be worked at less expense. In population Tomsk ranks with the four largest cities in Siberia, and is destined soon to become the intellectual centre of Asiatic Russia as the seat of a university. Although over fifty years ago richly endowed by private munificence, the first stone of this institution was not laid till 1880. To it wiU be attached a botanic garden on extensive grounds given for the purpose by a citizen of the place. Like all Siberian towns, Tomsk covers a vast space, its straggling suburbs spreading for miles in aU directions. In 1876 the landing-place for steamers was over 4 miles from the centre of the city. East of Tomsk the two towns of Mar Husk and Achinsk, in the Chulim basin, have some importance as stations on the great Siberian highway. But for hundi'cds of miles down the Ob the so-called towns are little more than groups of huts. Between Tomsk and the Irtish confluence, a distance of over 960 miles, nothing occm's except the two wretched towns of Narim — that is, "swamp " in Ostiak — below the Ket delta, and Surgut at the mouth of the little afiluent of like name. About 420 rmles still farther down stands Berozov, the northernmost town in the Ob basin. It lies on the Sosva, a tributary of the Little Ob from the Urals, and has become famous as a place of banishment. Here died Menshikov, Ostermann, and the two Dolgorukiy, besides hundreds of less known, though no less generous patriots, doomed to a slow death in this glacial land, far from friend and foe alike, torn from all the joys of life and fierce struggles for fi-eedom. Berozov is on the verge of the habitable world, producing nothing but a few hardy vegetables, yet deri\Tng some importance from its trade in fiu's, though even these are now chiefly restricted to squirrel skins. Farther north there are only a few fishing stations, of which the best known is Obdorsk, consisting of about sixty houses and a chapel, at the mouth of the Ob. In this Arctic region the climate is too severe for working the gold, platinum, and iron mines of the surrounding hUls. In summer the surface thaws only to a depth of from 8 to 12 inches, and in winter the glass falls to — 12^ and even — 16° Fahr. The Obdorsk fair, where the Ostiaks and Samoyedes formerly sold their furs, is much less frequented than formerly. The natives now prefer to trade with Turukhansk, on the Yenisei, where they run less risk of losing the produce of a year's chase for a few quarts of brandy. Mangazeya, founded by the Cossack hunters farther east on the Taz, has ceased to exist, and has been succeeded by the hamlet of Tazovka. 852 ASIATIC fiUtfSlA. IV.— YENISEI-BAIKAL BASIN. The waters flowing through the Yenisei to the Arctic Ocean belong, like those of the Ob, to two different basins. The Uluugur and Black Irtish are prof)erly MongoKau rivers, which have been enabled to drain northwards through a break in the surrounding mountains. In the same way the Selenga rises in the uplands fringing the Gobi desert, and pui-sues a winding course through a depression of the hilly plateau, whence flow east and north-east various head-streams both of the Lena and .^Vmur. The Selenga falls into the great transverse trough now filled by Lake BaUcal, and through a depression lying at an angle with this vast lacustrine basin the Angara also escapes to the Yenisei. The emissary flows at first parallel with the Lena, and these two rivers were probably at one time con- nected through a lateral breach. But the Angara is now deflected northwards, descending in a series of rapids through a still imperfectly excavated channel. After receiving the Oka and other tributaries it takes the name of the Upper Timguska, as if it were really a different stream, and after describing a great curve towards the north and west, it flows in a gentle current to the Yenisei. The Yenisei itself rises in a mountain cirque east of the Altai range, escaping from its upper basin through a succession of defiles in the parallel Sayan ridges, and flowing thence regularly northwards to the Arctic Ocean, iminterrupted by the numerous geological breaks obstructing the course of its great afiluent from the east. Hence it rightly retains the same name from its entrance into Russian territory to its estuary, and it thus resembles the main trunk of a tree, which throws off a side branch longer, stronger, and more ramified than itself.* In the history of their inhabitants the two basins of the "\^^estern Yenisei and of the Baikal also differ from each other, and require to be studied apart. BASIN OF THE AVESTERN YENISEI. The Yenisei receives its first waters from the Chinese district comprised between the Saj-an and Tannu-ola ranges north and south, and bordered cast- wards by the lacustrine plateau where rise the farthest head-streams of the Selenga. None of the rivers rising in this district, which has a mean elevation •of 4,000 feet above the sea, have received from the natives the name of Yenisei. But the true main stream seems to be the Bei-kem, which is the " Great Yenisei " of some writers, and which is fed by niunerous brooks from the Eastern Sayan, better known as the Ergik-targak taiga. The Khua-kem, or " Little Yenisei," rises farther south on the heights near the great Lake Koso-gol, and receives on its left the waters flowing from the Tannu-ola valleys. The miited stream, which now takes the name of Ulu-kcm, forms the real Yenisei, which soon receives the Kemchik from the converging point of the Altai, Tannu, and Sayan ranges. Although there seem to be no glaciers in these highlands, some of the crests rise • Probable length of tho Western Yenisei, 2,58n milos ; probable length of the Selenga-Angara- Y'eniaei, 3,300 miles. Probable area of di-ainage, 1,180,000 square miles. BASm OF THE WESTERN YENISEI. 353 here and there above tlie snow-line, while most of them are snow-clad for eio-ht months in the year. Those of the Ergik-targak are certainly 10,000 feet high, and passes leading over this chain from Russia to China are at elevations of 7,400 feet. With its northern incline the Upper Yenisei basin really forms part of Siberia in its climate, flora, fauna, and general aspect, but not in its inhabitants, who are exclusively of Mongol stock. The slopes are covered with forests of the Siberian cedar and larch, beyond which stretch thickets of the rhododendron and other Alpine plants, while the rivers and lakes are fringed with poplars and willows. Fig. 1S8. — Upper Yenisei Basin and Minusinsk Steppes. Scale 1 : 3,400,000. A -. 'JJitas^iijoSJiSfe ', ,S' ^v. -i «-j^ ii .- 54? i--l 52 Eof G 94° Cj:w mjoi - GO Miles. The deer is chased iii the upland forests, and the grassy plains are honey-combed with the imderground dweUiugs of the tarbagan. Still the transition from cHmate to climate may be observed in many places, and especially in the east, where the uncertain water-parting between the Yenisei and Selenga is strewn with lacustrine basins, some filled ^-ith salt water, others containing magnesia and mineral sub- stances in divers proportions. About half a mile below its junction with the Kemchik in Russian territory, the "Great River" — for such appears to be the meaning of the Tungus word Yoanesi, whence the Russian Yenisei — passes in a bom, or narrow defile, through a 354 ASIATIC EUSSIA. series of parallel ridges, ruimiiig south-west and north-east on the Sayan plateau. About 10 miles from the frontier the stream enters a gorge scarcely 100 feet vride and 330 yards long, through which a lake was di-ained which formerly filled the whole upper basin. Here the current is so rapid that it scarcely ever freezes, though a little lower down usually ice-bound for over five months in the year. Further on the stream is interrupted by other rapids in its passage through the parallel chains, which are all separated from each other by deep valleys formerly filled with water. Of these rapids, none of which entirely obstruct the navigation, the most dangerous is the " Groat Eapid " below the junction of the Us. Beyond the Sayan highlands the scene changes abruptly, grassy steppes succeeding to moun- tain cra»s. Between Krasnoyarsk and Yeniseisk some reefs and rapids also cover the surface with foam, and cause a din that drowns the boatmen's voices. The lono-est of these is nearly 7 nules in length, and is traversed by boats descending the stream in about half an hour. But on the whole throughout its middle and lower course the Yenisei is a placid stream, with a fall scarcely exceeding that of the Ob. At Krasnoyarsk, over 1,800 miles fi-om its mouth, its mean elevation is only 530 feet above the sea, and at Yeniseisk, below the rapids, 230 feet. Like the Ob, the Yenisei traverses some tracts dry enough to be regarded as steppes. Here the Tatars pitch their tents as on the Turkestan plains. Thus the Abakan steppe stretches for over 30 miles along the left bank above Minusinsk, while west of the same place the Kachinskaya steppe comprises most of the plain skirted southwards by the river Abakan. But these dried-up tracts are the exception in the Yenisei basin, where the main sti'eam is swollen by numerous affluents, especially from the east, making it one of the great rivers of Asia even before its junction with the Upper Tunguska. Here its mean breadth varies from 5,000 to 6,500 feet, expanding to 4 miles during the spring floods, when it increases in dejjth from about 40 to 82 feet. Its volimie, apparent^ about equal to that of the Danube, is more than doubled by its union with the Upper Tunguska, and imder the pressure of this current the main stream is deflected westwards. For several miles the turbid and yellow waters of the Yenisei flow in the same bed side by side with the dark blue Tmiguska, gradually merging in a common alluvial stream. The faima of the two rivers also differs, the sturgeons and sterlets of the Tunguska having black backs, while those of the Upper and Lower Yenisei are of a grejdsh colour. Below the confluence the Yenisei, like most Siberian rivers, flows between a low bank on the left and a steep cliff on the right. But below the SinI jimction both sides are high, and the stream is here obstructed by a rocky barrier, causing it to expand to a basiu about 10 miles in circumference, and studded with over fifty islets. This Is the only obstacle presented to the navigation of large steamers throughout its lower course, which In many places is over 130 feet deep. In the forest region below the Great Tunguska the Yenisei is joined by two other Tunguskas, the Podkamenyaya, or "Highland," and the Nijnyaya, or " Low," besides the Bakhta, Yelogui, Kure'ika, and other affluents scarcely inferior in volume. The Nijnyaya is about 1,620 miles long, and over half a mUe \\'ide at INHABITANTS— THE CHCDES. 355 its mouth. In a -wanner latitude it would form a magnificent water highway between the Yenisei and Lena basins. For it rises near the latter river, with which it at first runs parallel, approaching it, near Kirensk, to within 13 miles, but then tui-ning abruptly north-west to the Yenisei. The Taimura, one of its affluents, traverses a region abounding in coal beds, one of which has been con- sumed by imderground fires. In its lower course through the glacial zone of the tundras the Yenisei receives no more affluents. But here it partakes more of the character of a marine estuary, the stream being at times arrested by the joint action of the tide and north wind 300 miles from its mouth, and expanding over a space 30 and even 40 mQes wide. In this vast fresh-water fiord, studded with low islands and exposed to the full violence of the fierce winds sweeping over the tundra, the navigation is very dangerous for the ordinary flat-bottomed fishing- smacks, which seldom venture far from the banks. But before reaching the sea the stream again contracts, and is only 12 or 1-1 miles wide at its mouth. During severe seasons it is open for navigation only about fiJty days, from July 10th to the end of August. Its waters are less rich in fish than the Ob, although certain portions, especially of the estuary, aboimd in animal life, including multitudes of tench, lote, perch, taken chiefly as food for the dogs, besides sturgeon, salmon, and other more valuable species. Nearly all the river population are fishers, agricultm-e and stock-breeding being but slightly developed except in the Minusinsk steppes. Hence the navigation of the Yenisei has hitherto been of little use except for transporting the produce of the fisheries. Yet the region traversed by it abounds in minerals, forests, and game, whilst the southern districts might produce food enough for the sustenance of millions. The navigable waterway, which, exclusive of the Baikal, cannot be estimated at less than 5,000 miles, was used so late as 1876 only by a flotilla of four steamers and two sailing vessels under 50 tons burden. Most of the other craft consisted merely of flat-bottomed boats, rafts, and pontoons taken in tow by the tugs. After bringing down com and other produce from the south most of these craft are taken to pieces, and the timber used as fuel or for building purposes. But since Nordenskjcild has foimd the way from Europe to the mouth of the Yenisei, and discovered the excellent harbour of Dicksonhavn on its right bank, at the entrance of the estuary, trade cannot fail to be developed on this great artery of Central Siberia. 'Some experimental trips have even already been made by English, Scandina^"ian, and Siberian traders. INHABITANTS — The ChCdes. Doubtless the Yenisei basin, more mountainous in the south, deficient in " black loam," lying at a greater distance from European Russia, and stretching less towards the south, can scarcely ever sustain so large a population as that of the Ob. At the same time all the region comprised between the Sayan highlands and the con- fluence of the Yenisei and Angara has already been almost exclusively settled by Russian communities, scattered in groups along the river banks and the great 356 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Siberian overland route. The antiquities found in this country show that it formerly possessed a considerable population. AVhen visited by Gmelin in 1735 the gold, silver, and copper objects found in the graves were numerous enough to be met with in every household. In the Abakan steppe, on both banks of the river of like name, and along the Yenisei for 120 miles below Abakansk, the barrows are grouped in hundreds and thousands, especially in the fertile tracts. Certain parts of the steppe are like vast cities of the dead, where the mounds are so crowded together as to look at a distance like herds of gigantic animals. Amongst them are some of recent origin, which are still being erected on the occasion of great religious ceremonies, not for the purpose of depositing in them the remains of renowned heroes, but only as receptacles of coats of mail, stone axes, copper implements, coins, and other objects dating from heroic times. Most of them, however, are ancient kuro-ans 26 to 30 feet high, containing either chiefs with their arms and horses, or entire families, or heaps of human remains thrown in, doubtless, after some great battle. These are the so-caUed "black" kurgans. But the most remarkable tombs are those enclosed by circles of stones, some of which are carved in the foi-m of men, women, and children. These sculptured stones are by the Russians called haha, the same name that they give to the nude figures surmoimting the km-gans of South Eussia. But most of the figures have disappeared, and, judging from what remains, they would seem to represent men of Mongol race, and the camels that accompanied them on their expeditions. The populations whose remains were consigned to these tumuli were in other respects more ci\-ilised than the Europeans of the corresponding bronze epoch. Amongst their jewellery have been found genuine works of art in beaten gold, besides porcelain and bronze vases embellished with bas-reliefs of animals, such as the argali, deer, eagle, wolf, and winged monsters like griffins or flj'ing dragons. Numerous metal mirrors occur, resembling those still used by the Biu-iats and Mongolians in their Buddbist rites ; but iron objects are found only in the barrows of recent origin. Figures of the duck, an animal worshipped by the ancient Finns, are common. According to the general tradition the men buried in these tombs are " Chudes," who consigned themselves alive to the grave on the appearance of the birch, emblem of Russian dominion, in their woodlands. The Soyots and Karagasses. The indigenous population of the Upper Yenisei basin, both in China and Siberia, consists of Mongols, Finns, Tatars, diversely intermingled, and confounded one with the other by nearly all travellers. Most of the peoples living in the Ob basin are also met in various parts of the Yenisei region. Thus the Tatars stretch east- wards to the gates of Minusinsk, Kansk, and Krasnoyarsk. The Ostiaks roam over the forests on both banks of the river north of the Angara confluence, while the Samoyedes pitch their tents in the tundras about the estuary. Some Samoyede families are even found on the northern slope of the Ergik-targak, in the valleys of the upper affluents, who are supposed to have remained in their primeval homes THE SOTOTS AND KAEAGASSES. 857 after their kinsmen had mig-rated northwards. At the time of Castren's visit in 1847 these rejjresentativcs of an ancient race, known in the comitry as Motors, and calling themselves Tubalars, seemed to be dying out. Small-pox had made great ravages amongst them, and most of the survivors had migrated to Chinese territory. Others have been absorbed in the surroimding Tatars and Soyots, and the old Samoyede dialect had perislicd even before the race itself. The Soyots, said to number from 7,000 to 8,000, are Finns like the Motors, and speak a dialect resembling that of the Samoyedes. They are divided into several distinct tribes, occujjying two or three valleys in Russian territorv ; but thov are far more numerous in the Kcm and Selenga basins within the Chinese frontier. Having had formerly to pay their tribute of furs to both Governments, they have obviated the inconvenience by withdrawing farther from the borders, and leaving a wide unoccupied space between. The Soyots, who seem to have become mixed with the Tatar race, have mostly regular features, with straight nose, small and very slightly oblique piercing eyes, broad forehead, pointed chin, an intelKgent, resolute, and thoughtfiil expression. They joractise several industries with very great skill, notwithstanding their primitive implements. They extract iron from the ore, casting it into bars or bidlets, make their own powder, and repair their rifles. They also navigate the lakes and rivers on rafts, but occupy themselves rarely with agriculture, being mostly nomads, whose chief wealth consists in their sheep, cattle, yaks, and horses. The latter are verj^ shapely and much valued by the Minusinsk dealers. Milk, cheese, butter, and kumiss form their chief diet, but they are unfortunately much too fond of a'lraJi, a strongly intoxicating fermented drink. More numerous than the Soyots are the Uriankhs, who call themselves Donva, and who are supposed to be of Tui'ki stock. They resemble this race in features, and most of them speak Tatar dialects, but, unlike most Turki people, they are Buddhists in religion. Their tribes intermingle with the Soyots, though the bidk of them dwell farther east in the Bei-kem vaUey, on the shores of Lake Koso-gol, and about the head-streams of the Selenga and Angara. Some are hunters, but most of them are stock-breeders, living, like the Soyots, mainly on a milk diet. But they excel them as agriculturists, cultivating barley and millet, and irrigating their fields with canals over a mile long, skilfully traced along the momitain slopes. But under a feudal system the race has become impoverished. The dainan, or chief, and the aristocrats own herds of several himdred and even a thousand cattle, while all the rest are nearly destitute and reduced to a state of serfdom. Every lord is surrounded by retainers, who attend slavishly to aU his personal wants, and the nation has thus become divided into two hostile political factions. The poor are drawn by their interests towards the Russians, whereas the nobles and lamas, belonging mostly to the same families, and enjojang the same privileges, look for support from the Chinese and Mongol officials. Hence Russian explorers are very badly received bj' the dainan, and Mongol influence is stiU. paramount throughout his territory. The Darkhats, or "Freemen," who dwell farther south and belong to the same ethnical group, have been assimilated even in speech to the Mongolians. On the west and south-west are the Soyons, of the same stock, but more or less 358 ASIATIC EUSSIA. mixed with Kirghiz blood, and also assimilated in speech and habits to the iTon- golians. The Shamanist practices of the " Yellow " Soyons, who dwell together in Mongolia, are being gradually adapted to the orthodox Buddhist rite, and monasteries of lamas are already springing up in the midst of these nomads. Amongst the Darkhats there are no less than 1,400 monks in a total jjopulation of 7,000. The old customs have been better preserved by the " Black " Soyons, who live nearer to the Russian fi-ontier, and who, like the Soyots and Kalmuks, prefer the ox to the horse for riding, and even himting. On these beasts they are said to hold their o-svn against the best horsemen. A district occupied exclusively by Russian colonists separates the Soyot and TJriankh territorv from the Yenisei Tatar domain. The Karagasses of the Northern Sayan slopes have alreadv d^vindled to a few himdred, and their women are even said to be no lono-er fruitful. The Sagai, Kachines, and other Tatar peojjles, who occupy the basin of the Abakan to the nimiber of 14,000 or 15,000, are being gradually Russified. Most of those living in the steppes west of the Yenisei are very com- fortable, many of them counting their cattle not by heads, but by herds, of which some possess as many as seventy, averaging fifty head each. The Yenisei Tatars belong mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church ; but beneath this outward show the primitive ideas continue to flourish, and the evil spii'it is still worshipped. The TrxorsEs. North of the Russians and Yenisei Tatars the dominant people are the Tunguses, already mentioned by the Dutch writer Massa in 1612, and who now occupy nearly all the region limited westwards bj- the Yenisei, but especially the basins of the three rivers Tunguska named from them, and most of the Amur valley. Kinsmen of the Manchus, and, like them, originally from the Amur basin, they gradually stretched eastwards to the Yenisei and northwards to the Frozen Ocean. The Samoyedes call them Aiya, or " Yoimg Brothers," a term pointing to their recent arrival and jjoacefid relations with the old inhabitants of the land. About the middle of its course they have crossed the Yenisei, advancing along the left bank into the Ostiak domain. But towards the centre of their territory, between Lake Baikal and the Lena, they are hemmed in on the north by the Yakuts, southwards by the Buriats and Russians. Beiug mostly nomads, the Tunguses nimiber probably not more than 60,000 or 70,000 iu the whole of Siberia, but their courage, activity, and ready wit give them a decided moral pre-eminence over the other natives. The most general national name is Donki, which, like that of Boye, one of their chief tribes, means "Men." The Russian form Tungus is either a Tatar word meaning " Lake People," or more probably from the Chinese Timghu, " Eastern Barbarians." According to their pm-suits and mode of Hfe the Russians have di-\dded them into " Horse," " Cattle," " Reindeer," "Dog," " Steppe," and " Forest " Tunguses. Some families who have become settled have adopted Russian ways, and, thanks to their superior intelligence, make better husbandmen than the other aborigines. . THE TUNGTJSES. 859 But most of the nation are still in tlie himting state, roaming tlirougli the woods without tents, and seeking temporary shelter in caves or the hollow trunks of trees. A little sleigh carries all their effects, and with this they will journey for thousands of miles, from the Chinese frontier to the Frozen Ocean, always retracing their steps with unerring certainty over hills, plains, rivers, and steppes. The least mark left by the hunter on his track is recognised and respected by his kinsmen. A broken branch -vviU suffice to indicate the route to follow, while a stick thrown across the path bars farther progress in that direction. Arrows suspended in divers ways speak a language intelligible to the nomad ; but nature also addresses him in a midtitude of ways, which he interprets with astonishing sagacity. Signs meaningless for the European point to the presence of game, the neighboui-hood of a glade or running water, while their superstition sees in many trifling phenomena omens for good or evil, for luck or failure in the chase. Breaches of the tra- ditional code must be avoided. In difficult moimtain or marsh}' paths silence is religiously observed, and libations must be offered to the evil spirits, should the offering cost them their last drop of brandy. The woman in labour flees to the forest and is confined imaided, at the risk of jjerishing in the snow or rain. The new-born infant receives the name of the first stranger, man or woman, crossing a burning brand at the thresliold. Usage immemorial also requires that bodies be not buried, but exposed on the branches of trees, with the head always turned towards the west. Of Mongol appearance, the Timguses, with their roimd featm-es, high cheek bones, and small oblique ej^es, are distinguished especially by the square form of the head. Owing to their active habits and extreme sobriety the}^ are generally thin and wirj' even in old age, gliding swiftly along on their snow-shoes, and pass- ing like a flash over the thin ice, where the heavy Ostiak woidd not dare to venture. They are fond of racing, ■wrestling, and other phj'sical exercises, and their impromptu songs are alwaj's accompanied by animated gcstui-e. They also indulge in the dance with such vigour, and even frenzy, that spectators of other races are often carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment to take part in. the whirling motion. Then the clownish Ostiak, boimding round with bearish step, presents a sorry sight by the side of the nimble Timgus, -n-ith his graceful and noble car- riage. These nomads are also noted amongst all Siberians for their tasteful and elegant attii'e. Those of the Timguska especially wear a costume of admirable grace and lavish splendour, at once bold in design and displajong an astonishing perfection in the details of its embroidery and fringes. Yet any other native would look ridiculous ia such a garb. Surprising resemblances in the designs of the materials seem to show that the Tunguses must at one time have maintained constant intercoiirse with Japan. The practice of wearing armour and bucklers, formerly so common throughout Siberia, has fallen into disuse, and the ordinary weapon is now the jmlm, a long shaft tenninatiug with a sharp blade, on which the hunter leans in guiding his sleigh. The tattoo patterns seen on many faces cannot compare in the hapj^y disposition of the lines mth those of most Polynesians. Amongst the women the chief design consists of four parallel curves traced on both SCO ASIATIC KUSSIA. cheeks from the corner of the eye to the side of the mouth, with transverse lines outside the curves, bearing a vague resemblance to little butterflies ■with folded wings. Since the time of Brand, who visited Siberia towards the close of the seventeenth century, all travellers have been loud in their praise of the mental qualities of the Tunguses. Full of animation and native impulse, always cheerful even in the deepest misery, holding themselves and others in like respect, of gentle manners and poetic speech, obliging without scr\-ility, unaffectedly proud, scorning falsehood, and indifferent to suffering and death, the Tunguses are imquestionablj' an heroic j)eople. They neither exact the price of blood, nor do they practise the vendetta, like most barbarous tribes. But in accordance with the code of chivalry the}' challenge each other to niortal combat, and their meetings are regulated with a scrupulous cere- monial. Dwelling in the same climate as the cimning Yakut, the dull Buriat and profoimdly silent Samoyede, the Tunguses afford a striking instance of the per- sistence of racial traits under the most diverse surroundings. For their manner of life has been little modified by contact with the Russians. Christians in appear- ance, they have preserved their religious practices, usages, and rude freedom. " Our faith bids us live and die in the woods," they say ; and so, content with little and extremely temperate, they can suffer hunger and thirst for days together uncomplainingly, and even endure the privations of their long winters with unabated cheerfulness. For their wants one animal, the reindeer, one tree, the birch, amply suffice. The reindeer gives them his flesh in food, his skin in dress, his sinews and entrails as thongs and cords, his bones to carve into implements of all sorts. From the birch comes the bark wherewith to make their boxes, baskets, cradles, and tents. If at times they accompany the Russian ex^jlorers for days and weeks, and regularly partake of their meals, in this they do but comply with the national custom, which makes hospitality the first of duties, and j)ermits all to share alike in the food of each. Amongst them there were formerlj- neither rich nor poor, although the sense of property, consisting in the exclusi^■e right to hunt in certain districts, had already been fully developed. But now each family has its herd of reindeer, and its credit, or rather debt, account with the Russian or Yakut trader. Notwithstanding their buoyant character and innate force of resistance, the Tunguses, hemmed in, so to say, between the Russians and Yakuts, are threatened with extinction as an independent nationality. Although their numerous offspring are well cared for, the rate of mortality is very high, and whole families are at times swept away by smaU-pox, measles, scarlatina, and esf)eciaUy famine, their most formidable foe. Always exposed to this danger, they speak of death by hunger with remarkable indifference, as if such an evil were quite in the natural order. Of the former camping grounds in many forests nothing is now to be seen except the remains of cabins and biers suspended between two boughs a few yards from the ground. The Tungus tribe, which opposed the longest resistance to the Russians, has entirely disappeared, leaxing nothing behind except its name, given to the village of Taseievskoye, on the river Usolka, north of Kansk. TOPOGEAPHY. 861 ToroGRAPiiy. Their geographical iwsition, relatively mild climate, and fertile soil must secure for some of the Yenisei regions an important future. But meantime there are in this basin but few towns, and, with the exception of three or four, even these are little more than villages. MiDuniiisk, lying farthest south, and centre of a con- siderable trade between the Upper Yenisei and JMongolia, had 4,000 inhabitants in 1863, and diuing the ten following j^ears this number had not increased by 500. It is well situated on the right bank of the Yenisei, in one of the richest mineral districts in Siberia. Since 1835 the tributary streams have been worked for gold, Fig. 189. — Rock Inscription on the Banks of the Yenisei. of which about 8,775,000 roubles' worth was collected between 1845 and 1859, the present mean amiual jdeld being about 600,000 roubles. The lead and copper mines of the neighbouring moimtains have not been utiKsed since the abolition of forced labour, the attention of the free miners being directed mainly to the precious metal. Nor have the coal beds an}' present value, owing to the abundance of wood, the few industries, and lack of easy communication. The salt lakes near Minu- sinsk are used for the local supply alone, and the iron ores are worked only by the Soj'ots, the produce of the Urals being amply sufficient for the present demands of the Russians of the Yenisei. But in certain parts of these highlands there is not a single mountain but affords ample evidence of the activity of the ancient native 3G2 ASIATIC EUSSIA. miners. la the Uba valley, north-east of Minusinsk, there occurs a block of native iron weighing over 1,700 lbs., ■which Pallas believes to be of meteoric origia. The village of Ahakansk, 48 miles below Minusiask, was an important strong- hold during the last century, before the foundation of Minusinsk. Here the cliffs on the left bank are covered with well-preserved inscriptions, two in Tatar, and all the rest in Mongolian. Hundreds of stone tombs disposed in twos occupy a large space in the neighbourhood. Lower do^vn another rock, near the village of Xovo- Fig. 190. — Region- of the Yenisei C4old Mixes. Scale 1 : 2,001,00'?. .*--: Tl ^ ??> SI %. ^ fie >' E, Qf G. CP&f^rQn , 30 Miles. selovo, also bears ancient writings, and a clifE on the banks of the Sizim is inscribed with hieroglyphics representing birds, wild beasts, and horsemen. Another rock on the Yenisei, near Krasnoyarsk, is covered with figures of men painted in red. JTrasiwi/aisk, or the " Red Cliff," capital of the Yenisei government, stands at the foot of the red Afontova escarpments, on a peninsula formed by the junction of the Yenisei and Kacha. Standing on a na^"igable river where it is crossed by the great Siberian highway, and forming the administrative centre of a vast province, Krasnoyarsk has had a rapid development, its population having more than doubled TOPOGRAPHY. 863 since the miclcUe of the century. It is the kirgest place between Tomsk and Irlcutsk, but, omng to its bleak climate, is avoided by travellers in winter. Although the neighbouring coal beds are not worked, it is the chief trading-place for all the surrounding mineral districts. In the vicinity are some iron and sulphur springs on the banks of the Kacha. Yeniseisk, though taking the name of the river, ranks onlj^ as the second place on its banks. It stands on the left side, below the Upper Tunguska junction. But this advantageous position is neutralised by the fact that it lies abnost beyond the zone of Russian j)opulation, in the midst of lakes and swamps, on a low ground often covered with water and ice during the thaw. More than once it has been threatened with complete destruction. During the last century, when goods were forwarded mostly by water, Yeniseisk had one of the most important fairs in Siberia ; but the current of trade has been diverted southwards by the opening of the great overland route. Yeniseisk stands in a rich iron district, and farther north Fig. 191. — From Krasnoyarsk to Kavsk. Scale 1 : 2.300,000. Smij ' Kansk 9s= EofG iff C Perron. 30 MUes. the streams flowing to the Yenisei between the Upper and Moimtain Tunguska are worked for gold. Here are collected over two-thirds of all the gold found in the Yeniseisk government, though the jaeld of late years has fallen off.* Over one- fourth of the wTctched gold- washers are invalids, and of the 16,000 hands usually employed about 1,000 yearly attempt to escape. The districts of Kansk and Nijne- Udinsk, watered by the various streams flo\ving from the highlands between the Yenisei and the Angara, are also auriferous, and the salt springs north of Kansk yield from eleven to twelve parts pure salt. North of Yeniseisk we enter the wilderness, in which the few wretched hamlets fringing the river banks become rarer and rarer as we proceed northwards. Never- theless Turukhansk, one of these villages, ranks as a town, wheret he officials, famished almost as much as the unhappy exiles themselves, administer the affairs of the nomad Tungus, Ostiak, Samoyede, and Yakut tribes, and the few settled traders and fi.shers of the district. Turukhansk, capital of a territory with scarcely • Yield of gold in the Yeniseisk government (1875), 4,9.50,000 roubles; hands employed, 16,450. 364 ASIATIC EUSSIA. 2,200 settled inhabitants, in a space three times the size of France, contains of itself alone over one-fifth of the entire population. Its little houses are scattered over an island at the confluence of the Tuinikhan and Yenisei, here communicating Avith vast tundra lakes. A harboiu-, a few stores and sheds, await the trade that must some day be developed between Eui-ope and Siberia b}' the Yenisei estuary. Mean- while a peltry fair attracts the Samoyedes and Ostiaks of the extreme north between the Ob and Lena. The severity of the climate and the frozen surface have hitherto prevented the working of the vast deposits of graphite discovered east of Turu- khansk, between the rivers Turyeika and Xijnyaya Tunguska. One alone of these beds is said to contain at least 200,000 tons of graphite, which at the London exhibition of 18-j1 was recognised as the best in the world. Near the small port of Duudinka, on the Lower Yenisei, recently visited by Nordenskjold, there is a colony of skoptzi, banished from Russia, and all of Finnish origin. THE BAIKAL-ANGARA BASIN. The Selenga, main head-stream of the Upper Angara basin, rises, like the Irtish and Yenisei, on the southern slope of the mountains skirting the Siberian plains on the south, and, like them, it escapes northwards through a gap in those highlands. But the Yenisei falls regularly from its source to its mouth without forming any lacustrine reservoir, and the Irtish expands only in the shallow depression of Lake Zaisan, whereas the Selenga plunges into the deep trough of the Baikal, which is completely encircled by mountains. Moreover, the Angara, forming the outlet of this lake, is probably of comparatively recent origin, and does not constitute a direct continuation of the Selenga. As an inland sea Lake Baikal completely separates the Siberian basin which drains northwards from the southern region, which has received the name of Transbaikalia. The mountains rising west of the great lake, and which throw off the head- streams of the Selenga southwards, and those of the Angara northwards, belong to the Sayan system, itself a continuation of the Altai'. The Ergik-targak chain, forming the Russo- Chinese frontier-line, is attached to the Baikal highlands by a group of lofty summits, which rise above the line of perpetual snow, but which were none the less unknovm till recently. In 1832 Carl Ritter was imaware of their existence, and although the chain is mentioned by Humboldt imder the Mongolian name of Mondorgon-ula, it is by hiiu confused with other groups, and reduced to one-third of its true elevation. It was ascended for the first time by the naturalist Radde in 18o9. Here the Munku-sardik, or " Silver Mount," is covered with everlasting snows and ice, whereas all the other crests are bare in summer — a fact that can only be explained by the presence of a warm atmospheric current blowong from the west towards these uplands. The Mongolians never ascend the Silver Mount, always stopping at the place of worship Ipng at the foot of the southern glacier. Here they bathe their temples in the ri\Tilet trickling from the glacier, make their obeisance several times before the invisible genius of the THE BALKAL-aNGAEA BASIN. a to mountain, murmur tlie prescribed orisons, and throw a few drops of brandy towards the four cardinal points. This glacier, the only one on the Mongolian side of the VOL. VI. B B 3G6 ASIATIC RUSSIA. mountain, covers an area of about 4 square miles. But on the Siberian or northern side there is a double glacier of much larger size, which sends its advanced moraines 2 5 miles from the crest, damming up the waters flowing from the blue and icy Lake Yekhoi. From the narrow extremitj' of the Munku-sardik the view stretches west, north, and east over a world of crests, crags, and woodlands, while the gaze is lost southwards in the boundless region of the desert, blending in the distance with the sky. The blue waters of the great Lake Kosio (Koso-gol), and the large forests on the lower slope of the mountain, contrast with the bright red tints of the bare escarpments and the snowy peaks. In the middle of the lake, which stretches southwards for a distance of about 70 miles over an area estimated at 1,320 square miles, the eye is arrested by the white rocks of the Dalai-kui, or " Navel of the Sea," an island sacred in the eyes of all Buddhists. The pyramidal Munku-sardik forms an important water-parting. On the south-west rise various streams which, from aflfluent to afiluent, ultimately find their way to the Yenisei. In the north-west the river Oka, whose first waters are collected in Lake Yekhoi, skirts the foot of the Ergik-targak range, thence trend- ing north and north-eastwards to the Angara, and forming with it the Upper Tunguska. In the east the Black and White Irkut also rise in the neighbourhood of the sacred Mount Nuku-daban, whither the natives bring their offerings of furs, bits of cloth, gun flints, and old coins. Lastly, in the south the head-streams of the Selenga are collected in the great reservoir of Lake Koso-gol. But the streams flowing in these various directions differ greatly in volume, the annual snow and rain fall varying considerably according to the aspect of the hills and the atmospheric currents. Thanks to the deposits of graphite discovered by Alibert about 1850, and lying above the zone of forest vegetation, meteorological observations have been regu- larly taken on one of the highest points of these highlands. Alibert's mine con- tains many thousand tons of excellent graphite, already well known to artists, and now the property of a large pencil manufactiu-er near Nuremberg. Unfortunately the severity of the climate has occasioned the temporary abandonment of the works. The Tunka Highlands. To the same orographic system belong the mountains stretching eastwards from the Mimku-sardik, and which slope down to the banks of the Irkut near the western extremity of Lake Baikal. These are the Goltzi, or " Treeless Rocks " of Tunka, north of which other parallel chains are developed between the Oka and Angara valleys. The Goltzi range presents a striking contrast to the Sayan highlands. The jagged peaks of the Goltzi rise pyramid above pyramid north of the intervening Irkut vaUey, south of which the Sayan range is developed in long rounded crests. Yet both are composed of the same crystalline and palaeozoic rocks, and lava streams have been discharged from each. Lava beds skirt a great part of the Irkut valley, and though there may be no true volcanic cones in this region, molten rocks have been erupted in the Tunka valley near Lake Baikal, as well as on the banks of the Selenga in Transbaikalia. Deceived as to the character of certain so-called trachyte rocks, many travellers have exaggerated the impor- THE TUNKA HIGHLANDS. 8G7 tauce of volcanic action in this j^art of Siberia, tliougli it is remarkable enough that any igneous jjhenoniena should have occui-red so far from the sea-coast, near the great fresh- water basins of Lakes Baikal and Koso-gol. The only undoubted craters that have here been discovered are the two " cups " in the Sayan highlands about the som-ces of the Jun-bulak, a left tributary of the Oka near the Chinese frontier. Rising 415 feet above a plateau itself about 6,600 feet above the sea-level, these heights seem to be of sKght importance in the midst of the surroimding mountains ; but the lava stream that has flowed from the chief crater is no less than 12 miles long. Huge blocks of granite rest on the bed, which seem to show that it dates from the pre-glacial period. Earthquakes occur most frequentlj^, and with the greatest violence, in the region of the Irkut, Angara, Baikal, and Munku-sardik, Fig. 193. — MVNKU-SARDIK AND Kamak-habax. Scale 1 : 3,500,000. OEam . GO Miles. and Irkutsk itself lies in the chief centre of seismic action in Siberia, as Khojend does in that of Tiu-kestan. Great subsidence of the ground has also taken place in the Selenga and Angara valleys. The Tunka highlands are clothed by the same forest vegetation as the Sayan, and both systems are inhabited by the same animal species. But the lower range skirting the Irkut valley on the south differs in its forest-clad crests, and in some features of its geology and zoology, from the Sayan. With it begins the system of the Baikal, which develops at the south-west corner of the lake into the Kamar- daban, highest of all the mountains on the shores of the Baikal. It has an eleva- tion of 7,100 feet, and is covered in winter with vast quantities of snow.* * Various altitudes in the Munku-sardik system, according to Radde : — Feet. Culminating point . . . 11,600 Base of the Southern glacier . 10,750 Upper limit of flowering plants . 10,660 Upper limit of forests . . 7,400 Alihert Mine Nuku-dahan Lake Koso-gol Feet. 7,450 7,200 4,470 B B 2 SG8 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Lake Baikal. The heights encircling Lake Baikal have a mean altitude of not more than from 3,000 -to 4,000 feet. Although presenting from the surface of the water the appearance of distinct parallel chains, they must be regarded rather as forming part of the hiUy plateau whose ridges stretch south-west and north-east between the Lena and Argun basins. The lake itself partly fills two cavities in the plateau. Tor it really forms a double lake, whose two nearly equal basins were formerly separated from each other by a chain, of which the large island of Olkhon on the west side, and the "Holyhead" promontory on the east, are survi\ang fragments. The great subsidence of the land that has here taken place is sho-s\-n by sheer cliffs continued in a vertical line to a vast depth below the surface. Most savants Fig- 194. — The "Cup" at the Source of the Oka. formerly regarded the formation of the lake as due to a crevasse of volcanic origin. But a geological study of its shores has proved that igneous eruptions have had but a slight effect in modifying its outlines. No lava streams have been discovered except in the plain at the western extremity of the lake, north-west of the Kamar- daban. Nearly all the hills overlooking its waters are composed, like those of the southern plateau, of coarse-grained granites, syenites, crystalline schists, and porphyries, alternating here and there with old chalks, sandstones, and very thick beds of conglomerates. Lake Baikal, whose name is probably derived from the Yakut Bai-khai, " Rich" or " Fortmiate Sea," is known to the Mongolians by the name of Dalai-nor, or " Holy Sea," and the Russian settlers themselves give it the same title {^Sv'atoye More\ pretending that no Christian has ever perished in it except in a state of mortal sin. But all alike, Mongols, Uriankhs, Buriats, and Russians, are indig- LAKE BAIKAL. nant at hearing it being called a lake. For them it is a fresh-water sea, equal almost in maje.stj- to the salt ocean itself. The fishermen formerly assured Gmelin that it was very angry at being called " lake," and they were themselves always careful to speak of it in terms of marked respect. Thus it is that everywhere barbarous peoples, helpless in the presence of the imbridled forces of nature, have learned to fear and worship them. A number of dangerous reefs are regarded as sacred, and when the wind was favourable for landing, the natives were formerly wont to come and offer their sacrifices. One of these holy rocks is the throne of the " ^Miite God," near the outlet of the Angara. But the most hallowed spot is the headland projecting from the cast coast, and terminating with the cliffs of Cape Shaman, rising in the form of columns or rudely fashioned statues some 150 feet above the surface. In the eyes of the Tunguses these rocks are gods, rulers of the waters that bathe their feet, protectors of the birds hovering in the vast cavity of their mouths. But whether sea or lake, the Baikal is the largest fresh- water basin in Asia, and in most of the popular geographies in Russia it still ranks as the first lake in the world, as if the great inland seas of North America and Central Africa had not yet been discovered. But though yielding in extent to these vast lacustrine basins, it surpasses most of them in volume,* for it is of prodigious depth, its lowest cavities reaching far below the level of the sea. Even close in shore, at the foot of the sheer cliffs, it is over 330 feet deep, while the mean is estimated at upwards of 850 feet, and the extreme, as determined by Dibowski and Godlewski in 1876, at no less than 4,550. For distances of several miles there stretch uniform plains 3,950, 4,000, and 4,050 feet below the surface, and the soundings have recently revealed a rocky ridge over 3,300 feet high, running parallel to the Irkutsk and Transbaikal shores, in the centre of the basin, which is thus divided into two secondary depressions. Navigators had often spoken of elevated grounds where they had even been able to cast anchor in bad weather. But no credence was attached to these reports tiU Dibowski and Godlewski showed that the tradition rested on actual facts, and that there is a depth of only 200 feet above the sub-lacustrine ridge. Near the great ca^-ities rise the highest coast mountains, so that here, as ia the ocean, the depth of water corresponds, as a ride, with the elevation of the shores. The water is shallowest and the land least abrupt in the part of the basin to the north of the island of Olkhon and of the " Holyhead " promontory, and the depth is little over 200 feet in the " Little Sea," as the gulf is called, which is formed by the island of * Comparative table of the great fresh-water lakes : — • Area. Sq, Miles. Extreme Depth. Feet. Mean Depth. Feet. Approximate Volume. Cubic Kil. Baikal . 14,000 4,5.50 8.50 8,743 Victoria Nyanza 33,000 — — — Tanganyika 1.5,000 — — — Superior . 32,000 1,030 500 17,820 Michigan . 23,000 860 300 .5,130 Huron 22,000 "00 230 3,900 Erie 9,000 200 50 369 Ontario . 6,.500 600 400 (?) 1,944 Geneva . 230 1,100 500 87 370 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Olkhon and the mainland. Thank.s to its enormous volume, the tcmijerature of the lake is very uniform, varving at the surface no more than IT"" Fahr. throughout the year. Notwithstanding its vast size and volume, the present lake is merel)^ a remnant of a far larger basin. The steejD sides and more sloping beach everj'where show traces of former and higher levels. The .shingl}' strand that occurs at intervals all round the coast and in the valleys of the influents shows that even recently the lake was at least 20 feet higher than at present. But in still more remote times it was much larger, communicating with the old lake of the Irkvit vallev through a channel distinct from the fissure through whicli the Angara now flows to the Yenisei. The portion of this emissary comprised between the Baikal and its con- fluence with the Irkut was formerly a mere rixmlet flowing to the Irkut, and separated by a sandstone barrier from the great lake. But while the work of erosion was going on north of this barrier, the pressure of the waters of the basin was acting on the south, till a time came when an opening was effected in the rocks, through which the lake made its waj', and converted the Angara into one of Fths R Fig. 19.5.- —Depths OF THE W ESTERV B. LIKAL. 54 lOS 162 ^ _ ^ |V=— =^ w -^ s -^ ^ ^ = p- - 216 ~^ -r" ■ " 270 / L ^ 380 ?■ 432 / 5«0 594 64.S 1 ==— =— .' - l'-... ,.--T— " r"- l_ L 1 1 r^n ri _J J _^ u J _ — 1 u ,..,, L u _ U u _ _l LI G Miles. 12 18 'Ihe depths are i epresenttd in decuples of their real proportions. 30 the great rivers of the world. The very word Angara is said to mean in Tungus " water escape," and may possibly recall the sudden outburst through the fissure in the northern edge of the lake. The channel was gradually enlarged and deepened, and the lake thus reduced by the outflow to more narrow limits. The difference between the summer and winter levels scarcely now exceeds 3 or 4 feet, though in exceptional years the floods produced by the melting snows cause a rising in summer of from 6 to 7 feet. These slight variations of level, as compared ■nath those of Maggiore and other Alpine lakes, are due to the fact that the inimdations of the Selenga, Barguzin, Upper Angara, and a hundred other influents have time to subside before reaching the common reservoir, ^^-hile they receive less sedi- mentary matter than the Alpine lakes. Hence the water is far more transparent than that of Maggiore or Geneva. The smallest pebble is perfectly Aasible 36 feet below the surface, while the large rocks disappear from sight only at depths of 50 or 52 feet. Even after hea'N'y rains the water remains clear near the strand and the rivulets. To the same absence of alluvia from the surrounding granitic valleys is due the sharpness of outline presented by the angles and crests of the coast hills. The I LAKE BAIKAL. 371 shores still seem to preserve their original architecture, and the view of the steep cliffs, for unknown ages resisting the erosive action of the water, seems to carry us back thousands of centm-ies to a stiU more primitive state. Yet there is no absolute lack of recent formations, especially towards the shallow northern extremity of the basin. Here the Upper Angara and some neighboiu-Lng streams unite in a common marshj' delta, separated from the open water by lines of dunes from 6 to 30 feet high, and mostly overgrown with thickets of trailing pines and other timber. In the southern basin the Selenga delta also breaks the old coast-line by its alluvial deposits. The cliffs assume their grandest and most picturesque appearance along the western shores, and especially between the island of Olkhon and the outlet of the Angara. Here the irregular tower-shaped headlands rise from 700 to 1,000 feet above the surface, clothed here and there with pines and shrubs. Between these wave-beaten and grottoed headlands the strata of the softer formations have partly fallen in, revealing through their openings the amphitheatre of the riverain ranges towering above the terraced plateaux. But, in spite of their majesty, these land- scapes seldom fad to produce a depressing effect on the traveller. No dwellings, no cultivated lands, nothing is anywhere visible except savage nature and the wilderness. As we skirt its desolate shores the aspect of the hills undergoes little change, headland succeeding headland, rockj' inlet to rocky inlet, in endless mono- tony, the scene changing so slightly that we seem to be still in the same place. The forests covering the slopes and narrow strips of shore consist exclusively of pines, firs, the larch, and other Siberian species. Nowhere do we meet the ash, the elm, or oak, whose abundant foKage, varied tints, and majestic forms impart such a charm to the scenery in the West. The dull and monotonous green of the pine becomes in the end as depressing as the blackish crags themselves, rusted in the distance by the red blossom and brown stems of the rhododendron. The poplar balsam if era alone, with its green branches resembling those of the walnut, recalls the leafy trees of Europe. Lake Baikal is too vast to be perceptibly affected by its tributaries ; hence the surface waters drift from shore to shore entirely according to the dii-ection of the atmospheric currents. The general movement towards the south-west, spoken of by Hess, lasts only during the prevalence of the polar wind, which, ia the southern part of the lake, is called bargttzin, because it seems to come from the bay to which the river Barguzin flows. The contrary wind, blowing from the west and south-west, takes the name of kultuh, from the village standing at the western angle of the lake. Besides these more prevalent winds, sudden squalls and storms sweep down through the valleys and side gorges, frequently changing the direction of the waves, or raising streaks of surface foam across the heavy groimd swell. Lake Baikal freezes regularly in winter from about the end of November to the month of May. But fierce gales often break its icj' fetters. Even when frozen throughout to the normal thickness of from 4 to 5 feet, and crossed -without danger by swift postal sleighs, the crust never ceases to heave with the liquid mass sup- porting it. The traveller hears the muffled sound of the waters rolling beneath 872 ASIATIC RUSSIA. their solid roof, and producing a slow wavy motion. At times a sudden .shock causes the ice to vibrate with a metallic sonnd, or to break into long narrow fissui'es cleared by the trained horses at a bound. It is probably through these temporary rents that the air penetrates to the deep, enabling the fishes and seals to live through the long winter in the ice-bound waters. To the winter frosts succeed the fogs of spring and summer. When the cold water, liberated by the storms from the crust separating it from the air, begins freely to diffuse its vapours throughout space, the lake immediately becomes like a vast seething caldron. Every morning in spring it is covered by a dense haze, which, in the afternoon, is dissipated with the increased temperature of the surface waters. For the same reason the atmosphere agaiii becomes bright about the end of summer and beginning of autumn, when the temperatm-e of the waters approaches, and at last even surpasses, that of the air. The Baikal fauna is relatively poor in distinct species. The lack of alluvial lands on the coast, and the rapid fall of the clifPs into depths of several hundred yards, have prevented the development of Crustacea and other in-shore animals. Aquatic birds are consequently also somewhat rare. Few birds are seen in summer besides the fishing cormorants and flocks of mews, one species of which is elsewhere tmknown except in Iceland and West Europe. But in spring and autiunn the surrounding woodlands are temporarily enlivened by flights of birds of passage migrating to and fro between Central Asia and Siberia. The lake abounds chiefly in varieties of the sturgeon and salmon, especially the so-called omul species. But the myriads of fishes spoken of by Pallas and other early travellers as ascending from the lake have disappeared, and so great is the destruction of .spawn by the fishermen that whole species are threatened with extinction, unless measures be taken for their preservation. Some have already disappeared at some imknown period, and are now foimd only in the Little Frolika, or " Trout Lake," the JDara- chanda amui of the Timguses, situated near the northern extremity of the great basin. This reservoir is extremely deep, and abounds in trout, which have not yet been foimd either in Lake Baikal or in any of its tributaries, and in its fauna are included many other peculiar sjiecies of fish. The seals are not evenly distributed over the whole of Lake Baikal, being mainly confined to the west coast. In suimner they are met chiefly on the east side of Olkhon Island, whereas in autumn they frequent the southern shores between the Barguzin and Selenga Rivers. Whether belonging to the oceanic faima or altogether to a peculiar species, they are undis- tinguishable from the Phoca foetida of Spitzbergen. Being eagerly piu'sued for their skins, sold at large profits to the Chinese traders, they seldom show themselves above the surface, nor do they swarm on the beach like those of the polar seas, but bring forth their young on ice floes. An inland sea, where fishing is decaying, where there are no villages or any centres of industry, is naturally but little navigated. The first steamer seen in Siberia was no doubt laimched on its waters in 1844, but only for the local service between the Irkutsk coast and the Selenga delta. All the trade of the lake is concentrated in this corner, through which travellers and merchandise are THE AJ^GAEA. WATER SYSTEM. 373 forwarded from Siberia to China and the Amur basin. Before the introduction of steam, the sailing vessels, buffeted by the winds or lost in the fogs, often took over a fortnight to make the passage of about 60 miles across the lake. Durino- the time intervening between the open navigation and sleighing the traders follow the land route roimd the western extremity of the lake, along the foot of the Kamar-daban range. Lake Baikal drains a region estimated at about 128,000 square miles, of which the Selenga basin in Mongolia and TransbaikaKa comprises at least two-thirds. The semicircle formed by the contour of this basin, a vast plain covered with a bro^^^l and porous porphjTy resembHng lava in appearance, is no less than 1,530 miles in circmiiference. Here the main stream, which rises in Lake Koso-gol, at the foot of the Mmiku-sardik, and which, after recei\ing various names, at last takes that of the Selenga, describes a large curve some 660 mUes long. This river is navigable for flat-bottomed boats throughout its lower course below the junction of the Orkhon, and the Kiakhta dealers make use of it to forward their teas. Thus from the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Ocean, for a distance of over 2,700 miles, an uninterrupted na\-igable waterway may be followed from the Selenga to Lake Baikal, and thence through the Angara and Yenisei to the sea. The Selenga receives some large tributaries, notably the Uda from Transbaikalia, whose broad valley, descending from the Stanovoi range, begins at a short distance from the Amur. The alluvial plain formed by ihe Selenga at its mouth skirts the shores of the lake for a distance of over 18 mUes, and here the river ramifies into eight or ten branches, varying in relative importance according to the erosions and floods. Recently the surface of the delta subsided over a considerable space. The Angara Water System. The Selenga, the Barguzin, and the Yerkhnaj-a Angara, traversing the moun- tainous country of the Tunguses, jointly with other smaller affluents and the rains, discharge an excess of water into the lake, which is carried off by the Angara, one of the great rivers of Asia, with a volimie of certainly not less than 105,000 cubic feet per second. Emerging from a wide ba}-, whose shores are covered with larch groves, its seething waters encircle the "Shaman Rock," and flow rapidly through a bed falling from 20 to 30 inches in the mile, beyond which they are joined by the Irkut, Kuda, Eitoi, and Bieleya, without appearing to be greatly swollen by these affluents. So swift is the current that its deep blue and almost black waters sweep by the cliffs of Irkutsk after its tributaries have been covered with a thick crust of ice. Long after the intensely cold winter has set in the stream remains free from floes, but is wrapped in a dense fog aknost concealing the surface fi-om view. The Angara begins to freeze onlj- after the glass has stood at — 20^ Fahr. for several days ; but then it becomes ice-bound so rapidly that it may be safely crossed in twelve hours after the appearance of the first crystals. At the break-up the floating masses are dashed violently against the still frozen crust of the more placid stream lower down, and are accumulated at the entrance ASIATIC EUSSLV. of the gorges, where thej' are at times heaped up over 130 feet above the surface. AVhen these masses give way they are carried down, together with fragments of rock torn from the cliifs along the banks of the river. INHABITANTS-THE BURIATS. 875 Fig. 197- — Rapids of the Angara. Scale 1 : G75.O0O. Of the flefiles the most famous is that iu which the stream descends in rapids, and even forms amidst tlie reefs veritable falls avoided by ordinary craft. For a space of over 40 miles below the Oka confluence the Angara, henceforth known as the Verkhnaj-a Timguska, rushes between its granite and sj-enite walls over a series of nine rapids. Hero the continu- ous uproar produced by the waves dash- ing against the rocky islets is heard at a distance of several miles. Yet the.se rapids are safely run by the steamers, the fury and din of the angry waters merely causing a passing feeling of excitement amongst the passengers. Below the confluence of the Him the Angara flows through another gorge, whose serpentine and basalt sides rise some 600 feet above the surface. These are its last escarpments, although beyond tliem the stream, unable to pierce the northern plateau, is deflected westwards to its junction with the Yenisei. Not far from the confluence it receives the large river Chuna, which drains a vast basin watered by the auriferous torrents from the Sayan high- lands. Amongst the tributaries of the An- gara are also some " salt " rivers, and even in one of its islands, about 40 miles below the Irkutsk, several salt springs flow from rocks everywhere surrounded bj' fresh water. Many coal-fields are also embedded in its rocky sides, forming a reserve of future Avealth for this res-ion. Inhabitants — The Btriats. As on the Yenisei, the Russians are the dominant element in the Selenga valley, on Lake Baikal, and along the banks of the Angara. But many forest tracts are still exclusively occupied by the Buriats and Tunguses, from the latter of whom the Angara takes one of its names. These two indigenous peoples present a remarkable contrast to each other. The Tungus is brave, cheerful, modest, respectfid, and upright, whereas the Buriat is generally timid, peevish, rude, impassive, treacherous, and especiallj' lazy, more so even than the tarbagan, from which animal he steals in winter its store of roots concealed in its burrows. His broad features, with their high cheek bones, roFG I02°50 t02°45 C Perron > 30 Miles. 876 ASIATIC EUSSIA. are seldom lit up with a bright opcu cxf)rcssion. He rarelj' opens wide his small, slant eyes, while his thick lips protrude beyond a broad snub nose. Most of the Buriats are robust and broad-shouldered, but inclined to stoutness, awkward, and of heavy carriage, like their Mongolian kinsmen. Their besetting sin is intemperance, and, as thej^ are imable to resist the action of alcohols so well as the Russians, a glass even of the weakest brandy, or a few draughts of fermented milk, suffice to completely upset them. A\Tien not compelled by poverty to dispense with all household comforts, and dress in rags or the rude skins bequeathed to him bj' his elders, the Buriat is fond of display. Bugs are spread on the floor, or hung on the walls of his hut ; he decks himself in a silken robe fastened by a girdle, in ^\•hich he sticks his pipe and teacup. His wives and children wear embroidered garments, adorned with metal, and the horsehair tufts hanging on the breast are interlaced with mother-of-pearl beads, gold coins, bits of malachite, and silver fringes. Like their Kalmuk brethren, of Mongol stock, and near the Chinese frontier entirely assimilated to the Mongolian nomads, the Hunns, or " Men," as the Buriats call themselves, speak various Mongolian dialects, and their civilisation, such as it is, has evidently come, and still comes, from the south. The men shave their heads and wear the Chinese pig-tail. The lettered classes have various religious books translated from Tibetan, Mongolian, and Tangut, and their religious practices differ in no respect from those of the Buddhists bej'ond the frontier. They have also their lamas dressed in red robes, with yellow head- dresses and party-coloured girdles, and they are fond of processions, musical fetes, and frequent ceremonial gatherings. There is scarcely a single Buriat family in Transbaikalia without at least one priest, and, as a rule, every third son " enters the chiirch." On the shores of Lake Baikal, and especially in. the neighbourhood of Irkutsk, the Buriats have become Russified, and thousands of them have even accepted baptism. The two races have also become to some extent intermingled, so that while the Buriats were becoming Russians, the opposite process was also going on. In many villages it is difficult to trace the true origin of the people, especially as both Cossacks and Buriats speak both languages. In the ^-illages the peasantry are jDroud of speaking Mongolian, just as in the to'mis the civilised Russian parades his knowledge of French. In the Baikal basin the Buriats are found in the purest state probably in the island of Olkhon, where they are seldom visited by travellers or traders. The Tungus is a hunter, whereas the Buriat, coming from the Mongolian steppes, is above all a stock-breeder, though also a fisher on the shores of the lakes. Like the Kalmuk, he uses the ox for riding, but, unlike him, prefers the horse, and the animals of this race are perhaps the most remarkable in Siberia, not for their beauty, but for their marvellous powers of abstinence and endurance. The Buriat horses cover 30 or even 60 miles at a trot, without eating or drinkins:, and at the end of the journey seem still fresh. In winter it is usual to expose the horse during the night in a perfectly open court, and thus accustom him to intense cold, which would soon destroj- horses of any other breed. The Buriats highly value INHABITAKTS— THE BUEIATS. 377 these inseparable companions, which bear them so swifth' over the steppe and through the forest, and from long-established usage they never kill and eat the saddle horse, but those onl}- ^^hich have never been used as mounts. According to religious tradition the riding horse must accompany his master on his long jom-ney beyond the tomb. But care is taken to cheat the Deit^- by sub- stituting an old broken-down hack, or tethering a young steed to the grave with a slight string easily broken. Thus the terrified animal easily snaps his bonds and trots o£E to join the herd. " We have given him to God ; God has given him back to us ! " is the excuse for the pious fraud. In some districts the Buriats have also learnt from the Russians the art of hay-making and tilling the laud, and in the government of Irkutsk they have even become more skilful husbandmen than their teachers. The}' manure and irrigate the land more regularly, and own more live stock. In industrious habits they are surpassed only by the Raskolnik colonists, the most intelligent and laborious of all the inhabitants of Siberia. In the direction of the Tunguses the territory occupied by the Buriats is sharply defined. To the Tunguses belongs the northern extremity of Lake Baikal, whereas the rest of the lake, from Olkhon Island and the Sacred Headland to the Gulf of Kidtuk, is Buriat domain. The Buriats are di^-ided into tribes, named mostly from the district occupied by them, and subdivided into aimals, each with its prince {taisha^ and elders, fonning and governing itself according to its o'mi usages. Some of the aimaks have fonued confederacies, which hold assemblies in the forest glades, or on the shores of the lakes, to discuss their common interests. The Govern- ment abstains from interfering ia their local affairs and differences, except in the case of disputes between the tribal chiefs. No recruits have hitherto been raised amongst them, and although strips of the vast domain ceded to them by Catherine II. " for ever " are from time to time ajjpropriated for the benefit of the Russian settlers, there still remains more than they can cultivate. Proceeding from north to south, the Buriat Shamanism merges by imperceiDtible stages in Buddhism. The influence of Russian orthodoxy has also made itself felt, especially hy the introduction into the Bxu-iat pantheon of the legendary St. Nicholas, whose myth corresponds exactly with that of the Mongolian Tsagan ITbukgun, or " Old Man iu "SATiite." Hence the image of the latter is worshipped by the Rus- sians themselves, just as the Buiiats bring their offerings for St. Nicholas to the Russian churches. Although very religious, the Northern Buriats have but a small number of shamans, beiug too poor to support them ; but they do not fail them- selves to perform all the prescribed rites before their household gods woven in camel-hair, and before the di-\-iiiities of the headlands and sacred rocks on the lakes, streams, and springs, conciliating the good and evil genii by offerings of furs, ribbons, mirrors, or horsehair. In the world in which they live every object seems aUve, looking do^\Ti on them, listening to their prayers, animated by friendly or hostile feelings towards them. Hence the Buriat passes with a sort of awe by these formidable rocks, springs, or woodlands. For at times a single word or any unseemly laughter was sufficient to rouse their anger and stir up the sleeping storm. 878 ASIATIC RUSSIA. The Buriuts were long kuowu by the name of Bratskiye, or " Brotherly," given to them by the Siberian colonists, doubtless through an unintentional play of words. The fort raised for their reduction at the confluence of the Angara and Oka, and which has since become a .small town, still bears the name of Bratskiy- ostrog. But for the last two centui-ies the Bm'iats, who nimaber altogether about 250,000 (114,000 in Irkutsk, and 136,000 in Transbaikalia), have given up all idea of revolting, and are now reckoned amongst the most peaceful subjects of the Czar. They had at one time even to endure a police administration of extreme riffour. In virtue of the conventions signed between China and Eussia limiting the frontiers of the two empires in 1727 and 1768, the greatest precautions had been taken to prevent the migration of the nomads from one territory to the other. It thus happened that the regulations had to be most strictly enforced in the Bui-iat and Mongol districts, in consequence of the commercial relations carried on across the frontier of Maimachin. The intermediate neutral zone varied in width from 6 to 36 miles according to the nature of the country, and pillars were set up as landmarks all along the line. This line had to be daily visited by the respective frontier guards, and wherever any traces of tresi^assers were detected the spot was carefully surrounded by stones or sods, in order to preserve this proof of guilt until the culprits were denounced and punished. Wherever the frontier was crossed by streams, stakes were planted on either side, between which were stretched horsehair ropes from bank to bank. Thus no one could cross the line imder pretence that he had not perceived it. These regidations were strictly observed till 1852, but since then the ropes have been neglected, the imperial seal attached to the posts has been broken, and most of the landmarks have disappeared. Twice a year some Cossack horsemen still ride up to the Mongolian station.s, with their passports consisting of tablets which correspond exactly wdth other bits of wood taken by the Mongolians from the same block. The two pieces are fitted together, and, when all is fomid to be right, Cossacks and Mongols salute each other, and with mutual blessings drink copious libations to the glory of their respective sovereigns. T0P0GE.\PHY. The city which guards the frontier in the Selenga basin has long enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with China. In 1728, after the conclusion of a treaty of peace between the two empires, the two factories of the Russian and Chinese traders were founded at a distance of 650 feet from each other. In the south was Mai-mei- chcn (Maimachin), or the " Chinese Mart ; " in the north Kiakhta, commanded by the fortified Cossack station. Between the two, although both are built of wood, the contrast is complete, and it woidd be elsewhere difficult to find a more striking instance of diversity in the appearance of two neighbouring towns. Kiakhta resembles the elegant quarter of a European city, and its principal church, siu'- mounted by a bright dome, is one of the richest in Siberia. Maimachin looks more like a suburb of Pekin, but much better kept than the other towns in the northern provinces of China. The doors are covered with carvings, and strips of red paper TOrOGEAPHT. 879 are jDasted on the walls. Singing birds are kept in all tlie houses, and little bells chiming in the wind hang from the upturned corners of the roof. In the inter- vening space between the two towns the Chinese have disposed large planks in the form of a screen, to protect their dwellings from the baleful influences of the Rus- sian atmosphere, and on this screen was formerly jjainted the character meaning " good luck." Thus every noxious breath from Kiakhta and every profane expres- sion uttered by the Russians was stopped half-way, and driven back to the desert. A " pigeon " trading jargon, which is neither Chinese nor Russian, has sprung up in this frontier emporium between the Chinese, or Nikandzi, and the Russians, or 0-lo-lo-seh. The prosperity of Kiakhta and Maimachin has greatly varied with the political vicissitudes. All trade has at times been interrupted for years, but the enormous profits of the monopoly enabled the Kiakhta dealers soon to recover their former opulence. China, which sells to Russia much more than it buys, exported at first nothing but gold, silver, rhubarb, and silks. But tea gradually became the staple of her export trade, and the Russians long boasted of enjoying the best tea in the world, thanks to the " Kiakhta Caravan," which took eighteen months to reach the Nijni-Novgorod fair from the Chinese frontier. The first-class teas brought to Kiakhta, and which the high ofiicials and guests of the dealers are privileged to taste, have undoubtedly an exquisite flavour. They come directly from the planta- tions where the veiy best crops are raised, and these jjlantations are owned by the Russian dealers themselves. But adulteration goes on all along the line of the great overland route, at first at Irkutsk, then at Tomsk and Nijni-Novgorod, and lastly at Moscow. The treaty of Tien-tsin of 1858, in any case, put an end to the commercial monopoly of Kiakhta, and at the Nijni-Novgorod fair in 1880 the tea from that quarter represented no more than one-tenth of the whole amoimt disposed of. At present Russia receives by sea and from foreign countries most of the pro- duce she formerly imported dii-ectly from China through Maimachin. Other routes have also been ojjened towards Pekin and the Yang-tse-kiang at various points of the frontier, and especiallj^ through Kobdo, so that the trade is no longer obliged to stop before the mystic screen of Maimachin. Yet, though the exchanges of Kiakhta have consequently considerably fallen off, it stiU does a large trade of a miscel- laneous character, and the fairs of the " white month " — that is, of February — are much frequented by the Chinese and Mongolians. Including the neighbouring town of Troi'tzko-savsk, lying over a mile to the north, and the residence of most of the officials, Kiakhta is the most populous place in Transbaikalia, and the richest in all East Siberia. On the Selenga is its port of Ud-Kidkhta, or " Kiakhta Mouth," so named from the rivulet which here joins the main stream.* The two towns of Selenginsk, " Old " and " New," lying at a short distance from each other, have not the importance which might be supposed to attach to the central towns of such a large basin as that of the Selenga. But the sm-rouudiug districts are xmproductive except along the banks of the auriferous Chikoi. Vast * Average yearly trade of Kiakhta :— 1824— 30, 13,680,450 roubles ; 1830—49, 13,313,410 roubles; 1849—59, 13,313,410 roubles. Trade of Kiakhta and the Amur district in 1872, 10,840,000 roubles. 880 ASIATIC RUSSIA. tracts consist of sandy and saline stejDpes, some of whose lakes are even brackish. South-west of Selenginsk, near the south side of the so-called " Goose Lake," stands the chief temple of the Buriats, in which resides the Khamba-lama, ^\ath as many as two hundred monks, under the direct authority of a priest of Urga. Elephant tusks, huge shells from the Indian Ocean used as holy- water fonts, tiger and leopard skins, bear e\'idence to the constant relations formerly maintained between the Baikal lamas and Buddhists of India through Tibet. I^ext to Kiakhta the chief towTi in Transbaikalia is Verk/uii/e-Udinsk, at the confluence of the Uda and Selenga, na^^gable for steamers to this point. Its jDort on Lake Baikal is the tillage of Posohkoye, whose houses cluster round a wealthy monastery west of the river mouths. None of the tillages on the .shores of Lake Baikal have yet been raised to the rank of a town. Lintcoiichnaya, on the gulf at the Angara outlet, is a landing station for the people of Irkutsk ; Ku/tid; at the western extremity of the lake, is a small fishing haven ; and Dush-kachan, at the north end, is another little jjort, ^\•here the Tunguses come to pay their tribute in peltry. Tttrka, on the east coast over against Olkhon Island, is a mere thermal station with sulj)hur and iron springs, utilised by a few invalids from Irkutsk. Baryuzin, l3'ing on the river of like name and at some distance from the east coast, is imjjortant only as the capital of a district. Tuiika, in the valley of the Irkut, is a large straggling village, whose houses are scattered over a vast space in the midst of fields and meadows. Irkutsk, capital of East Siberia, and probably the largest city in Asiatic Russia north of Tashkend, does not stand on the river Irkut, as its name might imply. No doubt a peltry factory was established on the Angara at the junction of the Irkut in 1652, nine years after the discovery of the former river. But in 1669 the trading station was removed to the other side, at the mouth of the Ushakovka rivulet, and here was rapidly developed a city which now covers a space of several square miles. When Gmelin ^-isited it in 173o Irkutsk had already a popidation of 6,500, comj)osed, however, mainly of ofiicials, soldiers, traders, servants, with scarcely any women. Hence no families could be founded, and the population had to be constantly recruited with fresh elements. The mortality has at all times been higher than the birth rate, but in winter the place is crowded with thousands of gold-seekers from the surrounding uj)land valleys.* The town, with its broad straight streets lined by old houses, has no remarkable monuments. It boasts of possessing the oldest building in all Siberia, but this is merel}^ the fragment of a fort on which is legible the date 1661. On a triumphal arch erected in 1858 after the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun is inscribed the haughty legend, " Eoad to the Great Ocean " — words, however, justified by conquest. A section of the Russian Geographical Society, founded here in 1869, publishes important memoirs ; but some of its most precious documents have perished in a recent fire, which at the same time destroyed a large part of the town. Irkutsk is • Population of Irkutsk in 1S38, 16,569 ; in 1857, 23,989. Excess of mortality between 1830—57, 1,425. Immigration same period, 8,845. Population in 1875, 32,514, of whom 12,870 were officials, soldiers, priests, monks, convicts, and servants. I i TOPOGRAPHY. 381 an iudustrial centre, and the number of its factories, amongst whicli distniories, as in the rest of the empire, hold a prominent position, has been rapidly augmented. A porcelain and faience manufactory, sujjpKed with clays of excellent qualit}^, has been established in the district, and its products are exported to Transbaikalia. Various smaller industries, started by Polish exiles, have largely contributed to the progress of Irkutsk and East Siberia. But the city is distinguished especially as an intellectual centre above all other Siberian towTis. Its inhabitants study much, Fig. 19S. — Populations op the Ikkutsk GovEiiXMENT. According to Chudovsky. Scale 1 : 12,700,000. C OfG Bussians. Yakuts. Tunguses —^ 300 Miles. discuss the current events and ideas, and at times betray symptoms of opposition with which the Government will have to reckon. Here is published the only independent periodical in Siberia. So thiulj' peopled is the coimtry that for 900 miles below Irkutsk there are no towns on the Angara, although the -\411age of Balagansk is dignified with the name. The only town in the whole basin at a distance from the main stream is Nijne- TJdimk, on the Uda and on the great route to Moscow, in the centre of a VOL. VI. c c 382 ASIATIC RUSSIA. gold-washing and iron-mining region, of which it is the entrepot. More than haK of the province is still altogether uninhabited, and elsewhere the various ethnical groups of Russians, Buriats, Tunguses, Tatars, and Karagasses are scattered in isolated eommunities over the land. Goitre is a very prevalent affection in certain parts of the Irkutsk government, especially those watered by the Lena. Compared -svith the whole population, the sufferers represent scarcely more than 1 per cent, of the inhabitants, but in some districts the proportion is as high as one-tenth, while in certain villages it rises to a third and even one-half of the peasantry. All these cretins are of Russian descent, the non-Slav native elements never being attacked. The cause of this immunity must be attributed, not to any ethnical privilege, but to the care taken by the Bm-iats and Tunguses to avoid the districts where the malady is endemic. Even in the neighbourhood of Irkutsk a magnificent vaUey, one of the most fertile and best sheltered from cold winds in the whole province, the Russians were surprised to find completely deserted, and hastened to settle in it. Hence all the villages here bear Russian names, and form, so to say, a sort of linguistic as well as a pathological enclave in the midst of the surrotmding popula- tions. Here goitre is very common. T.— BASIN OF THE LEXA— SHORES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN. East of the Yenisei several important rivers take their rise in the uplands limited northwards by the basin of the Nijnyaya Tunguska, and flow thence in a winding course throuo'h the tundra solitudes to large estuaries on the Frozen Ocean. These streams, and the lakes traversed by them, are as yet known only in their main features, although they have been visited for over two himdred and iifty years bj"^ htmters and the officials to whom Ostiaks, Samojedes, Tunguses, and Yakuts are obliged to pay their tribute of peltries. The few natives of the country are designated mainly by the names of these rivers, whose frozen surfaces are used bj'' them as highways dxu'ing the winter season. Hence the frequent recurrence of the Pyasina or Pyasida, Taimira, Balakhna, Anabara, Khatanga, and its tributary, the Boganida, in earlj' Siberian records. But although many of these rivers are over 600 miles long, their economic value may be regarded as of no account. The official returns give less than 500 inhabitants to the vast basins of the Pyasina and Khatanga, belonging to the Yenisei government, and the Russian " ^-illages " figuring on the maps are merelj- clusters of two or three zimoviye, or winter cabins, with an average of from five to ten occupants each. Khatangskoye, on the Khatanga, capital of all this region, consisted in 1865 of a chapel and five cabins, inhabited by nine persons. Should navigation ever be developed on the Arctic sea- board, some new centres of population will certainly spring up on the banks of the Khatanga, whose fiord, ISO miles long, offers an excellent haven, in which the first explorers of the polar seas foimd refuge. A comparison of the earlier charts with that drawn up by Bove, of the Nordenskjold expedition, shows how Kttle was known of the Tainiir region, notwithstanding Middendorff's survey and the voyages of the peltry traders, The different charts show discrepancies of several degrees. BASIN OP THE LENA— SHOEES OP THE AECTIC OCEAN. 383 The Olcnyok, whose lower coiu'se flows for over 5° of latitude parallel with the Lena, is one of the largest rivers in Siberia next to the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and Aniur. With its windings it is no less than 1,200 miles long, and emioties into the sea through a mouth 6 miles wide, and from 20 to 24 feet deep, offering a good Fig. 199. — Coast of the Taimir Peninsula. Scale 1 : 6,300,000. C Perron Old Coast-line. Coast surveyed by Falander. - Eoute of the Vega and Lena. ■ " Probable Coast-line. 120 Miles. harbour immediately west of the low-ljong peninsula fonned by the aUuvia of the Lena. Explored throughout most of its course by Czekanowski and MiiUer in 1874, this river is not merely a waterway traversing the tundi-a, and fringed here and there by dwarf shrubs. For it rises in the middle of a forest region, and it c c 2 884 ASIATIC EUSSIA. carries seawards numbers of trees, which arc stranded on the shores of the largo islands and mainland. Besides timber the Olenyok A'alley also aboimds in mineral wealth, as well as naphtha springs and fishes in great variety. The camping grounds of fishers and hunters are more numerous on its banks than on the western rivers flowing through the frozen peninsula of Taimii-. There is even a true ^-illage, that of Bolkalak, or Ust-Olenskoye, on its estuary. Here were found, in 1863, sixty- two half-castes descended from Yakut women and Russian exiles, who had completely forgotten their Slav mother tongue. On the right bank, over against Bolkalak, Anjou found, in 1822, the traces of the encampment where the members of the Pronchishchev expedition passed the winter of 1737, and the graves where most of them were buried. The observations made by MiiUer on terrestrial Fig. 200. — Old L.ike traversed by the Vitim. According lo Kropotkin. Scale 1 ; 1,660,000. 24 Miles. magnetism during his Olenyok expedition have sho\\-n that the pole of magnetic intensity lies approximately between the 64th and 65th parallels, and about 114° east longitude between the Olenyok and Vilui. The Lena .vxn its Ixhabitants. The Lena, rival of the Ob and Yenisei in volume, and the most copious river in East Siberia, belongs entirely to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. It does not rise, like the Irtish, Yenisei, and Selenga, south of the ranges bordering the Mongolian plateau ; hence it has no deep defiles to pass through in order to reach the Siberian plains. Its basin is connected with that of the Angara by a depression which seems to have been formerly traversed by a large river. But at present its first head-streams rise at a relatively slight ele^-ation above the sea, the highest crests of the Baikal coast range whence they flow having an altitude of no more than from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Nevertheless the banks of the Upper Lena are ^ery picturesque. Its narrow stream here flows at first between schist formations,, succeeded at THE LENA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 385 Kachuga bj^ red sandstones, belonging probablj' to the Permian sj-steni. The steep rocks rise from 200 to 300 feet above the current, terminating in jagged and creneUated crests. These cliffs seem at first sight to be the advanced spurs of a lofty range, but when ascended thej^ arc found to form merely the edge of an almost level plateau. While those on the left bank are almost destitute of vegeta- tion, the recesses and terraces of those on the opposite side are overgrown with leafy trees and conifers. Between these steep and rocky walls the stream flows rapidly, but is everywhere navigable below the village of Kachuga, some 96 miles from its source. North of the sandstone formations begins the so-called " Cheek Defile," where the swift current of the Lena is commanded by chalk cliffs 100 feet hio-h, and pierced with grottoes. Here the river is no less than 70 feet deep, but navi- gation is endangered by its abrupt ^^andings, reefs, and rapid flow. One of the rocks in this defile is the chief divinity of the siu-rounding Buriats. Farther down the volume of the Lena is doubled, and its width increased to 1,400 feet by its junction with the Vitira. Of the two rivers the latter is, in fact, the larger, both in length and volume, flowing as it does from a region more exposed to the moist monsoons of the Pacific* But its course being more irregidar and less suited for navigation, the Lena was naturally regarded by the riverain poijulation as the main branch. The Vitim rises east of Lake Bailval, in the hilly plateau stretching from this lake to the Yablonoi highlands, and crossed by parallel ridges rimning north-east and south-west. The river and its numerous head- streams flow at first in the depressions of the plateau, and then unite in a common stream through fissures opened transversely between the intervening ridges. Even where the Vitim has assumed the aspect of a large river the main valley and those of its affluents alternately follow the normal direction of the plateau from south- west to north-east, while the side valle^ys rmi south-east and north-west. Owing to its sharp windings and swift current, the Vitim remains unnavigable till it has passed the falls by which its course is interrupted, about 340 miles above its con- fluence with the Lena. The depressions which it traverses were formerly filled by terraced lakes, most of which have been successively replaced by alluvial plains. Some, however, still remain, notably the great Lake Oron, connected with the Vitim by a short emissary. West of the main stream travellers have had to cross extensive lava beds stretching in the direction of Lake Baikal, and one of which is no less than 70 miles long. Below the peninsida formed by their confluence the united streams flow between low banks, here and there still interrujjtcd by sandstone and chalk cliffs, rising in some places 160 feet and upwards, and reflecting their hanging branches in the stream. The most romantic scenery in this section is noted for the so-called " Colonnades of the Lena," resembling ruined castles, whose ramparts and towers stretch for several miles along the right bank. Here the Lena is swollen by the * Length of the Lena from source to (ho Vitim junction . 876 miles. Vitim 1,280 „ Lena- Vitim to the Arctic Ocean . . . 3,280 „ Area of drainage 1,000,000 square miles. 380 ASIATIC EirSSIA. copious Olokma affluent, whose rapid current is felt 18 miles below the confluence. Farther down it is fed by still larger tributaries — the Aldan on its right, and the Vilui on its left bank, marking the limits of its middle course. Henceforth ceasing to wind eastwards round the plateaux of Central Siberia, it pursues its normal north- westerly course to the Arctic Ocean in an island-studded channel, -n-ith a mean widtli of from -4 to 5 miles, and in some places expanding to broad inland seas. At the Aldan junction it is over 12 miles wide from bank to bank. The valley of the Vilui may, in a general way, be regarded as forming an easterly continuation of that of the Nijnyaya Timguska, and as extended towards the Pacific by the basin of the Aldan. The coiu-se of the Lena is consequently here crossed by a transverse depression, which at all times afforded an important highway of local migration Fig. 201.- According to Norden?kj61d. -Lena Delta. According to Wrangell and Anjon. E fifG 135' C Perron gcnle 1 : 4,450,000. . 60 Miles. and commercial intercom-se, and which now presents certain advantages to the Russians, the valley of the Aldan offering the shortest route from the Lena basin to the Pacific seaboard. Under a milder climate such a geograjjliical position must have given rise to a first-class jjolitical or trading capital. After the Aldan and Yilui the great river of East Siberia has acquired its fidl bulk, being henceforth joined only by insignificant affluents. The forest vegetation along its banks also becomes gradually stunted and impoverished in species until they are at last succeeded by the lichens and mosses of the tundra. The islands grow nothing but scrub, though the Titari, or " Larch Island," the last of them, contams, besides the larch whence it is named, a little park of firs, birches, and poplars. Below this plot of verdure begins the vast delta of the Lena, comprising an area oi about 8,800 square miles. But all this watery- region is not formed THE LENA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 887 entii-ely by alluvial deposits. lu the north-west the Khangalat district, limited on one side by the west flank of the delta, on the other by a branch of the river, is an uneven tract strewn with lakes and hills. This is, in fact, an ancient marine island, or group of islands, which have been gradually connected with the mainland partly by the allm-ia of the river, jDartly also by the upheaval of the land. Hence the sedimentary matter brought down by the stream no longer finds a free passage to the sea in the direction of the north-west, the rocky escarpments of the Siberian coast and the Khangalat ujjlands here forming a natural limit to the delta. Conseqviently the chief branches of the Lena, with their alluvia, have been deflected eastwards, and it is here that the outlines of the islands, the winding and ramifica- tions of the fluvial channels, are most frequently modified. Off the estuary the water is but slightly brackish, but very dangerous to navigation, averaging no more than from 30 to 45 feet deep. The form of the delta is being changed from year to year by the alluvial deposits, drift-wood, storms, and especially by the floating ice, which at the break-up sweeps whole islands bodily seawards. The charts pre- pared at various periods fi'om more or less hasty coast surveys ofPer discrepancies far too serious to be regarded as the personal errors of the cartographers. But since the Russians have been acquainted with the delta the chief channel of naviga- tion is that which flows roimd the eastern headland of the continent, opening towards the south-east on the south side of a triangidar peninsula. Under pressure of the in-shore current setting west and east in continuation of the warm cui-rent from the Atlantic, the whole of the peninsida formed by the alluvia of the Lena has been deflected eastwards, thus diverting the fluvial waters to the eastern sea- board. North of the delta the Tumaskiy branch, though much obstructed with sand- banks, has maintained its channel near a landmark set up byLajjtyevon its banks in 1739. The channel at the western extremitj- of the delta region is recognised by mariners by the Ice Cape, a headland so named from the snow and floes which here persist throughout the year at the foot of the cliffs imexposed to the solar rays. The vast basin of the Lena has only been brought into water communication with Europe two hundred and fifty years after its occupation by the Russians. In 1878 the steamer if Hff, commanded by the Norwegian Johannsen, penetrated the river and ascended as far as Yakutsk. The way has now been opened, and it is hoped may be occasionally used, notwithstanding the serious obstacles opposed to the naviga- tion by the floating ice roimd the Taimir peninsula, and even at the entrance of the Lena mouths. In the delta branches the thaw does not set in till the end of Jime, or even the beginning of July, and the floes massed together and driven inland by the polar winds are said to completely block the entrance sometimes throughout the whole siunmer. Hence no regular navigation can be established between the Lena and West Europe tmtU the circumpolar observatories proj)osed by Wey- precht have been established, and the general movement of the ice in the Arctic Ocean duly signalled to the western ports. The Lena is far less accessible to shipping than the Ob or Yenisei ; but although it can never have the same importance for international trade, it none the less offers certain facUities for 388 ASIATIC EUSSIA. effecting exclianges witli the interior, -wliero its basin offers a navigaUe waterway of altogether not less than 6, 000 miles.* The natural resources of this basin, whose entire population scarcely exceeds 300,000, rival those of "West Siberia. The river itself abounds in fish no less than the Ob, while its forests are more extensive. It is also skirted by fertile plains and plateaux affording excellent pasture. The auriferous sands of the Vitim and Olokma are the richest in all Asia ; argentiferous lead, copper, and iron ores are met in various places, although no systematic survey has yet been made of these treasures. Salt in superabundance is yielded by many lakes, saline springs, and whole mountains of chloride of sodium. Sulphur springs rise along the river banks, and are lost in the stream. Lastly, coal beds belonging to the same formation as those of the Nijnyaya Tunguska basin crop out along the banks of the Vilui, and skirt the Lena almost uninterruptedly for over 900 miles below the " Colonnades." Some of these coal-fields, kindled by the forest fires, have been burning for years, and the smoke rising from the eminences have given occasion to the local traditions regarding the existence of volcanoes in North Siberia. The Yaxa, Kolima, axd Indigirka Rivers — The Arctic Islands — New Siberia. The Kharaulakh Hills, raising their snowj^, or at least snow-streaked, crests here and there to a height of 1,300 feet, separate the Lower Lena from the Yaua, which flows directly to the north, and enters the Arctic Ocean through a vast delta over 90 miles broad east and west. The southern entremity of the Kharau- lakh Hills Is connected by the Yerkho-Yansk range eastwards with the Stanovoi plateau along the northern edge of the Aldan valley. The route from Yakutsk to Nijne-Kolimsk, on the Lower Kolima, crosses this range by a pass 2,150 feet high, commanded by crests rising to an elevation of from 830 to 1,000 feet. The road to Yerkho-Yansk, on the Upper Yana, also follows a jiass 4,600 feet high, winding through a defile 660 feet deep. The Indigirka and the Kolima, which, like the Yana, rise on the northern slopes of the Yerkho-Yansk range, bear a striking resemblance to this river in the length and direction of their course, the volume of their stream, the rapids formed in their upper reaches, and the islands of their deltas. All rise in the same wooded highlands, and flow northwards through the level plain of the tundras ; but, although navigable, none of them are frequented except by the fishing craft of the Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and a few Russian settlers. Jliles. • Navigable course of the Lena 2,920 „ „ Vitim 345 „ „ Olokma COO „ „ Aldan 900 „ „ Amga 300 „ ,, jraya 300 „ Vilui 728 ' Total 6,085 Miles. nniSES— THE ARCTIC ISLANDS— NEW SIBERIA. 389 The most abundant in animal life is the Kolima, which, like the two Anyui joining its cast bank in a common delta, teems with fishes of various kinds. A few of the islands ofE the neighbom'ing coast have been laiowu from time immemorial to the natives, and by them jjointed out to the early Russian explorers. Such are the " Bear Islands," north of the Kolima estuary, occupied during the last century by numerous winter fishing huts. The so-called " Four Pillars," one of this group, forms a conspicuous landmark with its four detached basalt colimins, almost as regular as if they had been carved by the hand of man. The sailors of the Xordenskjold expedition took them for lighthouses erected by the Russian Government for the guidance of explorers in the polar waters. Another of the Bear Islands abounds in the remains of mammoths to such an extent that when seen from the southern mainland it seemed composed entirely of the tusks of these Fig. 202. — Archipelago of New Siberia. Scale 1 : 4,120,000. C- Perro r^ . e lliles. pachydermata. Some of the larger polar i.slands said to have been discovered in the last century, or even more recently, woiJd also seem to have been visited by the natives. Thus the so-called " Xear " or "First" Island of the Lyakhov Archipelago (Xew Siberia) cannot have been completely unknown, as the magni- ficent basalt columns forming the Kiselyak headland and Jlount Keptagai, several hundred yards high, are only 45 miles from Cape Svyatoi, and are consequently, in clear weather, always visible to the piercing gaze of the Tunguses and Yukaghirs. The wild reindeer, as well as the white bear and other animals, including even the smaller rodents, visit it across the ice from the mainland, and the hunters had only to follow in their wake to discover " Near Island." From this poiat to " Second Island " the passage is also very easy ; but the " Third," or Kotyelniy Ostrov, besides several others lying farther west, must have remained long unknown, although in one of them a Russian grave was discovered in 1811. Hedenstrom 390 ASIATIC EUSSIA. here found a Yukaghir sleigh and a stone knife, pointing to a remote period, for the Yukaghirs have long used iron knives, which they procure from the Russians. Kotyelniy Ostrov is a very large island, ■n^th an area estimated by Anjou at 8,000, and by Hedenstrom at no less than 24,000 square miles. It is generally connected by a barrier of reefs and extensive sand-banks -n-ith the island of Fadde3'ev (Thaddaeus), lying farther east, with an intervening channel 560 feet wide, through Fig. 203. — Routes op Axjou axd 'Wranoell. Scale 1 : 566,000. 72- 72' Y&angcU's IhnJcciitreJJslenJ Bearklahd, E. ofG, . 120 Miles. which the tides rush to and fro with great velocity. During stormy weather the connecting sand-bank is washed by the waves. The most recently discovered, or rather rediscovered, laud in these waters is the island known as New Siberia, a name frequently applied to the whole group of islands on the north coast between the mouths of the Lena and Indigirka. It was first sighted by the trader Sirovatsky in 1806, and was carefully explored in 1809-10 by Hedenstrom, Sannikov, and Kojevin. It was again visited in 1820 — 3 during the Wrangell expedition, and since then hxmters have never ceased to pass the winter there in the huts bvult for the purpose by Sannikov. Like the neighbouring islands, New Siberia is tolerably rich in animal species, thanks to the bridge of ice by which it is ^-earlv coimected with the mainland. ElYEES— THE AECTIC ISLANDS— NEW SIBEEIA. 393 Its fauna comprises the white bear, reindeer, Arctic fox, glutton, some small rodents, and nnmerous species of birds. Here the hunters also tind the remains of extinct animals, maimnoth and rhinoceros ivorv, buffalo horns, horse hoofs, and 392 ASIATIC EUSSIA. Hedenstrom picked up an axe made of a mammoth's tusk. The beach is strewn with the stems- of the hireh and j^ophir stranded by the waves, but the great curiosity of the island is a I'ow of hills fringing the south coast for a distance of over 3 miles, whose sandstone and gravel formations contain considerable masses of carbonised timber, referred by some to the Jurassic epoch, but regarded by others merely as di'ift-wood of recent date. Although these " AVood Hills " are only from 100 to 200 feet above sea-level, the mirage sometimes renders them visible from the Siberian coast, 1G8 miles off. During his numerous exploring expeditions east of New Siberia, Wrangell had his mind steadily fixed on a northern hind of which the natives had spoken, and towards which he saw the birds of passage directing their flight. A chart also, preserved amongst the foreign archives of JIoscow, figured an island in these northern latitudes. During his three trips across the Siberian ice he was arrested by a po/hu'a, or " clearing," such as all other Arctic navigators have foimd, and which have caused the name of Pohiiia to be given to the open sea met by Hayes in the American polar seas north of Smith Sound. The ice at the edge of the polinia was too weak to carry sleighs farther north, and the sea was distinctly felt surging in long billows imderneath. Wrangell's explorations onlj' ended in a negative result, or in the conclusion that the sought-for land could have no exist- ence. Nevertheless it has been found in the very place where its outlines had been drawn by Wrangell on the reports of the natives. The large island, which has been named " Wrangell Land " in posthumous honour of the illustrious navigator, rises high above the water to the north of the Chukchi country, near the northern entrance to Bering Strait. Discovered for the first time by Kellett in 1849, and sighted by the whale fisher Long in 1867, this land is still only faintly traced on the charts. How far it may stretch northwards is still undetermined, nor is it known whether it forms part of the land again seen by Kellett in 1867. Mount Long, at its southernmost extremity, has an elevation of 2,500 feet, and its regidar conic form has caused it to be classed with the extinct volcanoes. Nordenskjold and Palander were prevented by the ice from visiting these islands. The whole space stretching north of New Siberia and Wrangell Land, and between Franz-Joseph Land and the American polar archipelagos, remains to be explored, nor is it yet known whether it is partly occupied by any northern exten- sion of Greenland, as Petermann supposed, or whether these waters encircle islands or archijjclagos alone. In any case no erratic boulders are fomid on the northern seaboard of Siberia, from which Nordenskjold concludes that there are no exten- sive lands in the Siberian polar seas, or rather that the icebergs carry scarcely any rocky detritus with them, as indeed has hitherto been admitted b}' most geographers. North-west of the Tairair ^Jeninsula the Norwegian na%'igator Johannsen discovered, in 1878, an island to which he gave the fully justified name of Ensomheden, or "Lone Land." This dreary ice-bound land has an area of about 80 square miles, terminating westwards with high cliffs, above which rises a peak 510 feet high. The sands of the low-lying east shore are strewn with drift-wood stranded here bj- the current. This island was probably sighted by Laptyev in 1741. THE Y.lKUTd, YUKAGEIES, AND CUUVANTZES. 393 Imiahitaxts — The Yakuts, Yikaghirs, and CiirvAXXzES. The Bui-iats are very numerous in the southern parts of the Lena hasiu. Of all the natives of Siberia they have best preserved the forms of the old commime, greatly to the sui'prise of the Enssian peasantry, amongst -nhom the iafluence of tlie mir is far less felt iii private Kfe. The poorest Buriat claims the right of bed and board with the rich, and when an animal goes to the shambles aU share aUke in the feast, only the owner helps himself last. Even the iron ornaments worn by the damsels in their hair are taken without ceremony fi-om the communal smith, who sells his wares only to strangers. The corn harvest is made for the benefit of all, and aU help themselves freely from the common granary. Every five or six years the Biu-iats of the district join in a common himting party. Chiefs for the occasion are chosen, and they form groups of twenty or so to beat the forest ; but the produce is shared equally amongst all the members of the aba. But the dominant race in the Lena basin are the Yakuts, whose territory, at least twice the size of France, comprises a large portion of the Middle Lena basin, the banks of this river along its northern com-se, and the Arctic seaboard between the Khatanga Fiord and the Lena delta. They also dwell farther east on the banks of the Yana, Indigii-ka, and Eolima, and are found here and there iu isolated groups hundreds, of miles from their domain proper. Thus a few Yakut families reside as far west as the Yenisei -below Turukhansk, and their camping grounds are met La the south-east, even in the Amiu' basin. Stdl these northern regions of Siberia are not their primeval home. They occupied the country about Lake Baikal when the pressure of the Bmiats compelled them to migrate northwards, and adapt themselves to the rigours of an Arctic climate. Many Tatar names in the Baikal district still recall their presence there. About the beginning of the seventeenth century they had to confront other enemies, and the Russian adven- turers soon forced them to continue their northern movement towards the Frozen Ocean. In the middle of the eighteenth century they made their apj)earance for the first time in the Taimir peniusula, and diu-iug the present centui-y they have reached the banks of the Upper Eoluna. Dm'iug these migrations, which were spread over several hundred years, the Yakuts had not only to acclimatize them- selves, but even to modify their social habits. Formerly a race of pastors and horsemen, like their Eirghiz kinsmen, they have also had to become fishers, hunters, and reindeer keepers. A few words in their language serve to illustrate the difference that exists between their old and modern usages. However, the present Yakuts are not a pm-e race, and since theii- first migra- tions from the shores of Lake Baikal thej' have become largely intermingled with the other peoples whom they met in theii' new homes. They have crossed espe- cially with the Tunguses, who in many places frequent the .same hunting grounds, and with whom they have constant trading relations. Custom, and even religious prescription, oblige them to choose their wives outside the family, and in certain cases even outside the clan. These exogamous habits have thus changed many Yakut families to genuine ilongoKans, while in the Aldan highlands south-east of 394 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Yakutsk they have become Timguses in featui-es and aspect. Elsewhere they have been Russified, though the reverse process is of most frequent occurrence, the Russians who marry Yakut wives gradually becoming assimilated to that race. In many camping grounds hunters are met of Slav origin, but of Yakut appearance and habits. In this case the Tatar prevails over the Russian culture. According to ]iIiddendorli the full-blood Yakut has an oval face, with straight nose, slightly promiuent cheek bones, on the whole resembling a Kirghiz much more than a Mongolian. In height he holds a middle position between the Russian and Timgus,* and his costume scarcely differs from that of his northern neighbours, except for a kind of high head-di-ess Hke the kalpak of the Kirghiz and Khivans. This shaggy covering is evidently modelled on that worn by his ancestors before separating from their southern kinsmen. The Yakut language, which has been studied by Bohtlingk, Yambery, and others, also bears e^-idence to the relationship of this nation with the different peoples of Turki or Tatar stock. The Frisian of Xorth Hanover and the Transyl- vanian Saxon would have greater difficulty in imderstanding each other than woidd the Yakut of the Lena and the Osmanli of Anatolia or Constantinople. Doubtless the Tatars and Yakuts might have some trouble in holding converse together, but a slight knowledge of the respective grammars would make intercom-se easy enough. The Yakut geographical tei-minology differs somewhat from that of the Turkestan people, but the family relationship is unmistakable, and in many cases the nomen- clature is much alike from the Bosporus to the Lena delta. Yakutish is extremely rich in terms denoting the various fonns of moimtains, forests, watercoui-ses, and all the features of the earth's sui'face. The great nrmiber of almost synonymous expressions is even one of the chief difficulties which the Russian finds in learning this language. Nevertheless many Russians and Timguses employ Yakutish more commonly than their mother tongue, and even in Yakutsk, capital of the Russian rule in the Lena basin, the native speech was twenty years ago the language of conversation in the salons of many Russian officials. It has no doubt adopted manv Slav terms connected with the bureaucracy and modern technical arts, but Russian has borrowed even more freeh' from Yakutish. Thus in speech as well as in other respects the Yakuts have prevailed over the Slavs, and cases are mentioned even of the families of Russian priests who have become Tatarized in language and usages, retaining nothing of their nationality except their Slav names and religious practices. The Yakuts have been called the " Jews of Siberia." They have a genius for trade, and the Tungus, thi'ough his improvidence, has become their prey. The Yakut is the real owner of the Tungus reindeers, and claims in advance the martens trapped b}- the Timgus himter. But the speculative spii-it of the Yakut gets the better not only of the natives, but even of the Cossacks, and several local proverbs throw ridicule on the absm-d attempts of the Russian to diive a bargain with the * Mean height of tlie Russians at Yakutsk S -9 inches. „ Yakuts ,, ...... 5-7 „ „ TuDRUses ,, 5'4 ,, THE YAKUTS, YUKAGHLRS, AND CHUVANTZES. 395 Yakut. " Let him be ever so knowing, he is cheated at hist," says Uvarovskiy. Full of confidence in his genius, the Yakut finds no rival in the art of trickery until he meets the Chinese Da urians of Transbaikalia. The latter are f idly his equals in caution, cunning, knowledge of mankind, feigned simplicity, skill in touching the secret springs of vanity, while surpassing him in temperance, love of order, and thrift. In fact, the Yakut, satisfied with the triumph of the moment, is heedless of the future, repeating the local saying, " Eat well and grow fat ; you can do no better ! " A\Tiile compelled to work he will apply hunself ynth the same diligence as the Jew or Chinese, enduring hunger and toil with the resignation of a Tungus, frightened by no danger, disheartened by no difiicidt3\ But when the time comes to xmbend he lajDses into lazy ways -n-ith a sottish indifference, indulging especially in reckless gambling, and risking the fruits of the j^ear, and even of his life, on the hazard of the die. Ruined by an unlucky throw, he again becomes the skilfid himter or shrewd dealer, and resumes his wandering life of toil and hardship. In spite of his shortcomings, the Yakut is the most progressive of all the inhabitants of Siberia, thanks mainly to his remarkable powers of assimilation. He adapts himself readily to the surrounding physical conditions and popidations. During the long Arctic nights he sleeps away the time Kke the white bear buried in the snows ; but as long as the summer sun shines above the horizon he toils incessantly. He makes himself as comfortable in the Samoyede tent as in the Russian hut formed of logs piled one above the other in successive horizontal rows. Sedentary or nomad according to the exigencies of the situation, he is always ready to turn to whatever work is requii'ed of him. With the Samoyede or Tungus he becomes a Samoyede or Tungus, while still preserving in this evolution a natiiral genius in vii'tue of which he takes the foremost place amongst his new associates. With the Russian he also becomes a Russian, and accommodates himself to bureau- cratic routine and jaractices with astonishing facility. In the struggle for existence this race has not hitherto run any danger of disajjpearing before the Slav. In many villages the Yakuts are the most prosperous, and owners of the best-kept houses, the young Russians gladly coming to them in search of wives. Although thousands have become Russified, yet their numbers have more than doubled, if not increased fourfold, since the beginning of the century. At that time they are said to have numbered only 50,000, whereas aU recent statistics estimate them at over 200,000. Outside the towns they have preserved their administrative independence, still living under their toi/oii, or princes, who are supported, by " voluntarj' contri- butions." Under the rude climate of North Siberia the Yakuts cannot everjrwhere occupy themselves with agricultm-al pursuits, but as stock-breeders they have succeeded in doing what the Russians have not hitherto attempted. They have contrived to keep their cattle and horses alive in their dwellings beyond the Polar Circle, and do not fear to go in search of fodder himdreds of miles off. They have even suc- ceeded in developing a special breed of " milch mares," which yield as much milk as the cows, and may be milked several times a day. The small breed of horses they sell to the gold-washers are highly esteemed for theii- strength and powers of 396 ASIATIC EUSSIA. endurance. The Yakuts are flesh-eaters, preferring lioi se to beef, but are very sparing of their animals, never killing them except on state occasions. As craftsmen they are almost imri vailed, and succeed well in all trades. Their manual skill enables them with the most primitive implements to make all kinds of utensils, and even gold and silver plated wares and jewellery. They smelt the iron ores, and with the metal mauufact\u-e better instruments than those of the Russian dealers. In Yakutsk all the artisans, carpenters, joiners, painters, even carvers, are Yakuts. They make samovars and rifles, and can imitate anything, but with an original faculty. One of the curiosities of their industry is a species of basket made of osiers, with all the meshes fiUed in with clay, and then dipped in cold water to give it a transparent coatino- of ice. For more than half the year this basket has thus the appearance of a crystal vase. Most of the Yakuts, baptized at least in form, have Eussian, Polish, or German names, though so disguised as to be imrecognisable. The formerly prevalent female infanticide has disappeared, though the old shamanistic rites have not yet been quite abandoned. The Yakuts still believe in witchcraft, invoke the good and conjui-e the evil spirits. Great changes have doubtless taken place in theii- habits since the time of GmeHn's visit in the first half of the eighteenth century, but their religion has remained substantially the same. The mountain passes are the scene of the most imposing ceremonies, and here the shaman speaks most earnestly to the air and water gods, to the " little ancestral stream, the ancient of ages," to the " mountain grandmother," to the "dwarfs sought on the right in the eight valleys, and who are suddenly found on the left in the nine moimtains." Then he appeals to the wicked genius : "And thou, Shandai, old as the rocks, do not let us be lag- gards, strike not oui- youth, do not wink at us, do not turn thy looks against us, and hold thy tongue ! " Then the shaman throws spoonfuls of melted butter in the air in thanksgiving to the gods and to appease the demons, and he ties horse- hair round the trunks of the trees or to stakes set up on the cliffs. To all theii- gods the Yakuts have given Eussian names, especially that of St. Nicholas, and to their demons those of the Eussian devils, and thus their pantheon and pandemonium have become enriched. They also speak of a one God, universal father of all, but he is too high and too far off to be worshipped by them. He it was who made the earth, at first small and level, then the evil spii-it came and scratched the sm-facc, tearing it up like a dog, and thus were formed the hills and valleys. The earth constantly growing in size, the vallcj-s became the beds of rivers and seas, and " the continents rose amid the waters." The Bolgans, a few hundred of whom dwell in the forests and northern tundras between the Pvasiua and Khatanga Eivers, are frequently classed with the Tunguses. Yet their type and dialect show that thej- are Yakuts, like those of the Lena basin, though diversely intermingled with Timguses, Samoj'edes, and Eussians. Giving to the intervening distance they have long ceased to hold any intercourse with the other Yakuts, from whom small-pox and tji^hus seem to have fonnerly separated them. "With the Yakuts GmeHn classes the Yukayhirs, whose tents are grouped in a THE YAKUTS, YUKAGHIES, AND CHUVANTZES. 397 few hamlets in the tiindras watered by the rivers Yaua, Indigirka, and Kolima ; but Billings and Middendorff affiliate them to the Timguses, while Schiefner regards them as constituting a distinct stock in the midst of the Siberian popula- tions. Their speech is radically different fi'om all other native idioms, but they are obvioiisly a very mixed race, and even now readily intermingle with their Siberian Fig. 20.5.— Yakvtsk. According to Middendorff. Scale 1 : 150.000. n,ofG 150° C. Penfoa 3 Miles. and Russian neighbom-s. Formerly numerous " as the stars of a clear night," they are certainly disappearing, and soon nothing will be left of them except theu* barrows and the ruins of their log forts. Yenjiikov estimates them at about 1,600, other authorities at still less, and the old language is said now to be spoken by no more than a dozen Yukaghirs. The Chuvantzes, another neighbouring nation, also very powerful, were reduced in 1860 to 267 souls. TOL. VI. D D 398 ASLiTIC EUSSIA. Topography. The scanty population of the Lena basin and northern tundras is ahnost every- where scattered in villages and hamlets at great distances from each other. "With the exception of Yakutsk, none of these places bearing the name of towns would be regarded even as -villages in more thickly peopled countries. Yet they often occupy a considerable space, owing to their broad streets, large squares, courts, and gardens. But except on feast and market days they are silent and lifeless, and almost disappear altogether, or become blended in the surrounding scenery, when ground, plants, and houses are alike buried in snow. Verliho-Lensh, whose name indicates its position on the Uiiper Lena, is one of those administrative villages which have taken the name of town. Inhabited by a few himdi'ed Russians, and surrounded by Buriat and Timgus encampments, it is important only as the first trading station between Irkutsk and Yakutsk, at the head of the navigation of the Lena. Kirensk, at the confluence of the Kirenga and Lena, also enjoys some commercial advantage from its position near the portage connecting the Lena with the Nijnyaya Tunguska basin. Olokminsk, which in the moraine deposits of the district possesses the richest auriferous fields in all Siberia, is even a smaller place than the two preceding " towns." Yet it stands at the issue of the long valley of the Olokma, which leads by the shortest route from Yakutsk to the northern bend of the Amur. The distance from this group of eighty huts to Yakutsk, the nearest town, is 37-1 miles, and throughout this long waterway there are nothing but fishing hamlets and inns frequented by the boatmen. Yakutsk, the " city of the Yakuts," well situated near the left bank of the Lena, at the point where it approaches nearest to the Pacific Ocean, and not far from the Aldan and Vilfii jimctions, has grown into a real town, especially if accoimt be taken of the hard struggle man has here to make with the climate. Doubtless the two more populous towns of Archangel and Trondhjem lie nearer to the pole, but the cold is far less intense, nor is the ground constantly frozen in tlieir districts. With the exception of Verkho-Yansk, Yakutsk is the coldest town in the world,* with a mean temperature about the same as on the top of Mont Blanc. Yet 5,000 people are permanently settled here, and thousands of hunters and traders are temporarily attracted to the place by its fair, at which exchanges in peltries and provisions are effected to the yearly value of over 1,000,000 roubles. Many of the residents, however, such as soldiers, officials, and exiles, remain here against their • ITp to the present time Yakutsk, in North-east Siberia, has been cited as the place of our earth ■where the winter is coldest, while the minima observed during Arctic expeditions are believed to be the lowest known. Neither the one nor the other is true. In Maak's book, " Olekminski Okrug," I find many data which prove that the coldest winter as well as the lowest weU-authenticated minima were observed at Verkho-Yansk, to the north-east of Yakutsk. I give below the minima and mean at some places cited by Maak ;^ Minima (Fahr.). Mean. Serdze-Kamen (Nordenskjold) —60-3 f Yakutsk (Maak) —77-3 12-2 Wiljuisk (Maak) —76-3 ? "Werkhojansk (Maak) —81-0 4-3 A. Woeikof in Nature, March lOtb, 1881, p. 437. BERING PENINSULA, BASIN OF THE ANADIE, AND KAMCHATKA. 399 vnll. During the reign of Nicholas this -(vas one of the chief places of banishment for political ofEenders, but since then religious criminals have been mostlj' interned here. Yiluisk, the chief place in the great vallej' of the Yilui, to which the famous political economist Chernichevsky was banished; VerkJio-Yanak, on the Yana ; Sredne-KoUmsk, on the Kolima ; and Nijiie-Kolimsk, founded in 1644, on the same river, are also officially classed as towns. But Bulun, port of the Lower Lena, has not yet been promoted to this rank, while the G-overnment has dej)rived of the title Jignmk, on the Lena, midway between Yakutsk and Bulun. YL— BERING PENINSULA, BASIN OF THE ANADIR, AND KAMCHATEA. North-east Siberia and the Kamchatka peninsula lie in some respects beyond the Asiatic mainland. These lands are tm-ned towards America, and some of their inlets are even better known to, and more frequented by, American than by Russian craft. Yarious points of the coast about Bering Strait bear English names, given to them by the New England and Californian whalers. Some of the local tribes seem also to be connected rather ■with the American than the Asiatic aborigines. Notwithstanding its political subjection to Russia, this region has remained more foreign to the Slav world than any other part of Siberia. The crest of the continental " backbone " is connected only by irregidar ridges and Ul-dcfined plateaux vrvih. the highlands of the Chukchi and Kamchadale territories. The range which best presents the aspect of a regular chain runs east and west to the south of the Polar Circle, separating the northern affluents of the Anadir from the Arctic Ocean, and apparently rising in some places to an altitude of 5,000 feet. The hiUy plateau comprised between the two border ranges of Stanovoi and Yerkho-Yansk may, in a general way, be said to teiTninate west of the Anadir basin in a sort of elongated ridge with a mean elevation of 2,000 feet, and with jjeaks about 3,000 feet high. This is the extreme link in the continental orographic system, beyond which the heights begin to assume an isolated character. The fiords indenting the eastern portion of Bering peninsula may be regarded as the remains of straits fonnerly separating the islands from the mainland. Thus the Bering peninsula, properly so called, is di-\-ided into two secondary peninsidas, rooted to the continent at a point only 60 miles broad. But the relief of the whole of this peninsular region is extremely irregular. The Serdze-Kamen, the last headland on the coast facing northwards, is over 1,000 feet high, while East Cape, at the northern entrance of Bering Strait, rises to an elevation of 2,350 feet. The Chvdiotskoi Nos, projecting into the Pacific over against St. Lawrence Island, has an altitude of 2,760 feet, and other headlands are still higher, cidminating with Mount Makachinga, 8,900 feet, at the northern extremity of Etelkuyum Bay, north side of the Gidf of Anadir. This is the loftiest eminence in the Old or New World imder the Polar Circle. D D 2 400 ASTATIC EUSSIA. The mountains connecting the Kamchatka peninsula with the mainland also form a distinct orographic system. Their general direction seems to run paniUel with the last spurs of the Stanovoi ; that is to say, south-west and north-east. Thus the range beginning on the west coast in the broadest part of the peninsula skirts the coast of the Bering Sea as far as the entrance of the Gulf of Anadir. Still this range should be regarded mainly as the border chain of a hilly plateau forming a Fig. 206. — Volcanoes at Cape Potokotnoii, Soriii of Atacha Bay. According to the English Admiralty Chart. Scale 1 : 675,000. '=;2' X 4*X f ./^ / m unia n b^>^fe^ b ' ^ '' E CfG I58°20 I56°40- C. Perron 6 Miles. western continuation of that of the Upper Anadir, and in many places presenting the aspect of a veritable steppe. Here are the summer pastm-e lands of the numerous reindeer herds belonging to the Koriaks. In the Kamchatka peninsula itself the western highlands conmianding the Sea of Okhotsk are more elevated than those of the east side washed by the Pacific Ocean. But these granite, porphjTy, and palaeozoic schistose crests, forming the ancient backbone of the peninsula, have been joined by more recent volcanic formations, trachytes, basalts, BEEINa PENINSULA, BASIN OF THE ANADIE, AND KAMCHATKA. 401 lavas, and scoria, rising to a far greater elevation than the other mountains. These modern cones have indented the east coast with capes and inlets by the lava streams thej- have discharged into the sea. Hence, -while the coast-line of the peninsula facing westwards is remarkably imiform, the opposite side is varied with nimierous baj-s and creeks. One of these inlets near the southern extremity of Kamchatka, the famous Bay of Avacha, ranks with those of Eio de Janeiro and San Francisco as one of the "best harbours ia the world." The Kamchatka volcanoes form a northern continuation of the curved chaia of the Kurile Archipelago, whose convex side, like the similarly disposed chains of the PhilippLaes, Liu-Khieu, Japan, and the Aleutian group, is turned towards the Pacific Ocean. Towards the middle of the east coast of Kamchatka two arcs of a circle converge at a point where are situated the highest and most active volcanoes of the peninsula. Nearlj' fortj- moimtains in Kamchatka are of volcanic origiu, as is evident from their conic form, the craters on their crests or flanks, the lava streams that have been discharged from their crevasses. But of these not more than twelve still vomit scorice, ashes, and vapoui-s.* They cvdminate with Mount Klyuchevskoi, which rises near the sea, immediately south of the large valley traversed by the river Kamchatka. Several rows of terraces and secondary smnmits cluster round its base, which is no less than 200 miles in circumference. The crest, which is fissui'ed in every direction, constantly emits smoke and ashes, sometimes as often as two or three times a year, and dense volumes of dust have occasionally been wafted ISO miles over the land. An eruption mentioned by Krashenianikov lasted four years, from 1727 to 1731, and that of 1737, which was far more ^-iolent, discharged vast lava streams, melting the glaciers and sweeping avalanches of ice and water into the sm-rounding valleys. Another distiirbance took place in 1854 ; but these events, however grand in themselves, being witnessed only b}- a few natives or Russian officials, awaken but little attention ia the West. Kamchatka and the neighboui'ing seas are often agitated by ^-iolent earthquakes. In 1737 a shock is said to have raised the waves to a height of 200 (?) feet, flood- ing the coast, sweeping away the tents of the natives, and laying bare the bed of the sea. The northern part of the peninsula, IjTUg beyond the focus formed by the jimction of the cui've of the Kuriles with that of the Aleutian Islands, seems to have suffered much less than the southern districts from these con-^-ulsions. But there are nmnerous hot springs, both here and in the Bering peninsula, where they form little rivulets in the centre of the isthmus. The Anadir is the only river of North-east Siberia comparable in the extent of its di-ainage and the length of its course -nith the larger streams of "West Europe. But flowing partly under the Polar Circle near the verge of forest vegetation, the • Eleration of the Kamchatka Tolcanoes : — Feet. Klyucherskoi (actiTe) 15,610 Kor)-akoi-skiy „ 11,120 Dshkin (extinct) 10,890 Shevelynch (active) 10,445 Kronotz fextinct) 9,860 Feet. Krestov (extinct) 8,770 Jupanov (active) 8,410 Avacha „ 8,210 Great Tolbacha (active) 7,730 Viluchinekiy „ . 6,690 402 ASIATIC EUSSIA. land traversed by it is mainly a solitude. The small fort of Anadirsk, erected at the bco-inning of the eighteenth century as a depot for the peltry trade, had to he abandoned by its Russian garrison, after which it was bui-nt by the Chiikchis. It is now replaced by four- small villages, with a total population of about 200 souls, Chuvantzes, Yukaghirs, and Cossacks, all speaking Russian, but aU li^-ing in a half-savao-e state. Like most other rivers in the Chukchi and Kamchadale territories, the Anadir abounds in fish at the time of high water to such an extent that it seems one Hving mass. "When the shoals of salmon ascend the streams, they drive the water before them lilie a moving wall, and they are packed so closely together that they may be taken by the hand. At times the water even ceases to be potable, owing to the intolerable stench and taste imparted to it from millions of animals in decomposition. The river Kamchatka, which gives its name to the peninsula, is less than half the leno-th of the Anadir. But flowing much farther south through naturally fertile plains, still more enriched by volcanic debris, it waters some cultivated tracts, and nearly twenty Kamchadale and Russian villages have sprimg up along its banks. This is the true Bolchaya Ri/cka, or " Great River " of Kamchatka, althouo-h this title has been given by the Russian settlers to another stream, which flows west to the Sea of Okhotsk, near the extremity of the peninsula. Bering Strait and Sea. The seas which bathe the shores of the north-eastern peninsulas of Siberia are not deep. If the coast is here broken into fragments by fiords, struggling, so to say, to become straits, the bed of the sea is, on the other hand, so near the surface that it may be regarded as almost forming part of the mainland. The shallows skirting the northern seaboard of Siberia, from the Taimir headlands to "WrangeU Land, are contiaued to the extremity of Bering peninsula, and beyond the strait along the coast of North America. The Chukchis themselves are quite aware that the two continents are connected by submarine banks, even asserting that they were formerly joined by an isthmus. Two native hunters related to Neumann how the land subsided dm-ing a terrific fight between a warrior and a white bear. The greatest depth reached by the plummet between the two extreme peninsulas of the Old and New "World is less than 32 fathoms, while the mean result of the soundings in all the Asiatic and American waters comprised between the strait, St. Lawrence Island, and the Yukon delta falls short of 22 fathoms. The true ocean, with its profound abysses, begias, on the one hand, north of WrangeU Land ; on the other, otf the Kamchatka coast, between the peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, where a depression occurs of over 270 fathoms. StiU farther south, off the Japanese coast, the soimding-line plunges into the greatest ascertained depth on the sm-face of the globe. Here it registers 27,860 fathoms, whereas in the almost land-locked basin of the Sea of Okhotsk it nowhere shows more than 350 fathoms. Although a mere scratch on the earth's sui-face, Bering Strait has acquired a paramount interest in the history of discovery. Yet the fii'st voyage of Dyejnyev BERING STRAIT AXD SEA. 403 long remained forgotten, and eighty years passed before new attempts were made in tliis direction under the advice of Leibnitz. Bering now coasted the peninsula named from him, from the Gulf of Anadir to the Serdtze-Kamen, and in 1741 again Aasited these waters for the piu-pose of exploriag the American seaboard. But on his return he was shipwrecked, and perished on the largest island of the group fi-om Viim named the Commander's Archipelago. His grave may stUl be seen on Bering Island, a long ridge of high lava rocks, evidently forming the western buttress of the curved bridge of the Aleutian chain, thrown by the Alaska volcanoes across the water to the great bm-ning moimtaui of Klyuchevskoi, in Kamchatka. Cook also navigated the Bering Sea, and surveyed all the northern entrance of the strait, but without penetrating to WrangeU Land. These waters were soon after visited by Fig. 207.— BEKDiG Sea. Scale 1 : 30,000,000. C. Psr^i* to 4S0 Fathoms. 480 to 960 Fathoms. 980 to 1,440 Fathoms. 1,440 to 1,920 Fathoms. ) Miles. 1,920 Fathoms and upwards. Liitke, Kotzebue, and other illustrious explorers, and later on as many as four himdi'ed whalers have assembled in these seas. Lastly, MacClure, after traversing Bering Strait, completed in 1850 the circumnavigation of America, and in 1879 Nordenskjold doubled East Cape, thus showing that by the aid of steam the long- sought-for " ^orth-East Passage " is practicable. Forming the central gap in the vast semicircle stretching for a distance of 24,000 miles, from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Horn, Bering Strait is natiirally one of the most important oceanic regions in regulating the winds and cui-rents. The winds arrested on the Asiatic and American continents by plateaux and mountain ranges find a free passage through the strait. The masses of hot air resting on the Pacific, and the cold atmospheric ciu-rents from the pole, here move in opposite directions, contending for the upper hand. Opposite cm-rents are produced, which, owing 404 ASIATIC RUSSIA. to their different density, become regularly superimposed, like the draughts felt on opening the doors between two rooms of different temperature. During the winter of 1879, passed by him near the northern entrance of Bering Strait, Nordenskjold ascertained that a glacial wind from the north-west set steadily along the surface of the water from the Fi'ozen Ocean to the Pacific, while Fig. 208. — Bering Stkait. According to Bove. Scale 1 : 1,200,000. W.OfG. C Perron to 10 Fathoms. 10 to 20. 30 Fathoms and upwards. higher up the cloiids di-ifting incessantly northwards proved the existence of an opposite atmospheric ciu-rent. In the same way two oceanic streams here meet, though they are imable freely to develop in the confined and shallow space separating the two continents. The mass of tropical waters flowing from the South Seas to the North Pacific sets steadily from the Japanese waters towards Bering Sea, through the niimerous openings between the Aleutian Islands. But BERING STEAIT AND SEA. 405 being arrested by the submarine banks connecting Asia and America, this stream is ahnost entii'ely again deflected southwards along the North American seaboard. The cold waters from the Frozen Ocean are also collected at the northern entrance of the strait, where, in consequence of the rotation of the globe, they de\-iate towards the right, follo^\"ing mainlj' the Asiatic coast above the trough of deeper waters passing between Bering peninsula and St. Lawi-ence Island. In another directioa Fig. 209. CUEREXTS OF THE BERING WaTERS. Scale 1 : 3,300,000. C Pefroi) Black Flow from north to south. Stream flowing northwards. COO :Mjles. some of the tepid water impelled towards the Aleutian Archipelago by the Kuro-sivo, or " Black Stream " of the Japanese, flows northwards through the strait. Thus Onatzevich detected a small ciu-rent of relatively warm water running fi-om East Cape to the Serdtze-Kamen. Hence, during the short smnmer which breaks up the crust between the two worlds, long lines of floating ice are seen di'if ting south- wards along the Asiatic coast, whilst smaller masses are carried in the opposite direction northwards to the American side. None of these floes, however, deserve 40G ASIATIC EUSSIA. the name of icebergs. The portion belo\y the surface being on an average seven times thicker than the portion above it, masses rising more than 16 feet above sea- level are necessarily arrested by the submarine banks before reaching the strait. In the nearly land-locked basins of the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan the waters flow in a similar manner, every cm-rent from the south haA-ing its counter-current from the north. Climate — Faixa and Flora. The difierence in the climate is reflected in the appearance of the vegetation on both sides of the strait. AVhile the American coast is wooded to a considerable distance north of Prince of "Wales Cape, nothing grows on the Asiatic coast except mosses and lichens, and in the sheltered nooks a few stunted shrubs. Seen from a distance, this coast seems quite bare. Here the treeless zone comprises aU the Bering peninsula, the shores of the Gulf of Anadir, and the land as far south as the neck of the Kamchatka peninsida. But this peninsula itself, although Ijong almost entirely beyond the isothermal of freezing point, is very wooded, and even supplies timber for the navy. Its flora includes most of the Siberian trees, larch, various species of conifers, birch, sorb, poplar, and willow. In the underwood are several species of berries contributing to the sustenance of the inhabitants, who also dig for roots and tubers, from some of which they prepare intoxicating drinks. A pecvdiar article of diet is the green bark of the birch mixed with caviar. In some of the fertile valleys, especially in Kamchatka, the hay often grows 5 or 6 feet high, and is sometimes mown three times a year by the Russian settlers. But the repeated attempts to grow cereals have mostly failed. Although the cHmate is equable enough, thanks to the surrounding seas, the fogs and hoar frosts coiaciding with the flowering time have nearly always killed the plants. Oats succeed best, and some hemp is also cultivated, though not ia sufficient quantities to dispense with the thistle used in the preparation of the Kamchadale nets. Gardening has succeeded better than the raising of crops, and the cabbage, potato, beet, tui-nip, carrot, and other vegetables introduced from Russia in the eighteenth centui-y are now cultivated in thousands of native gardens. Yet all these sources supply but a small portion of the food required by the Kamchadales and their dogs, without which they could scarcely leave their huts in -n-inter. During the fom- summer months they have to lay up their stock of di-ied fish for the rest of the year. Fish is the regular wiater food of the dogs, six of which, forming the usual team of a sleigh, will consmne over one hundred thousand herrings in the cold season. The family has also to be provided for, and iu hard times, when the chase and fishing fail to supply sufficient store for winter, many perish ine^^tably. "Winter and want are synonymous terms for most of the natives. The famia of North-east Siberia is richer than that of the ^Vrctic regions farther west. This is probably due to the form of the continent, which, bj^ contracting towards Bering Strait, brings the animals migrating from the west in contact with those coming from the south. To these have been added some American species, such as birds and quadrupeds crossing the strait on the ice. The most numerous CLIMATE— FAUNA AND FLOEA. 407 mammal is the Alpine hare, which wiU even approach the tents notwithstanding the half-famished dogs jirowling about. The bear, marmot, weasel, and otter are also common, and the wild reindeer roams in herds of thousands in the hUly regions of the Upper Anadir basin. Snakes, frogs, and toads are nowhere met, but the fauna includes the lizard, which was formerly regarded as an animal of ill omen, and as the spy of the evil spirits. When seen they were always set ujDon and cut to pieces to prevent them from reporting on whom their evil eye had fallen. Thanks to the relative advantages of its climate, Kamchatka naturally abounds far more in animal species than the Bering peninsula and the Anadir basin. The lemmings [^Mi/odes torquatus^ and other small rodents swarm in countless millions, their hosts crossing rivers, lakes, and even inlets of the sea in straight lines, and are decimated on the route by shoals of voracious fish. At certain points travellers have been arrested for houi-s while these vast armies were marching past. Their migrations last several months, covering distances of over 600 miles. Thus the Kamchatka lemmings set out in spring, and after skirting the Gulf of Penjina, north of the Sea of Okhotsk, reach their summer camping grounds on the west coast about the middle of July, and generally get back to Kamchatka in October. However, the migrations are not regular, and, according to Bove, the lemmings of the Chukchi coast are sedentary and non-gregarious. The Kamchadales are greatly rejoiced when the animals make no preparations for quitting their ^\'inter quarters at the usual time, anticipating from this sj-mptom a good season and abundance of everything. The industrious and provident lemmings store up their supplies of corn and roots in large underground depots, which they are said to cover with poisonous herbs when setting out, in order to protect them from the depredations of other species of rodents. Such, at least, is the statement of Krasheninnikov, who, however, does not vouch for its truth. In hard times the Kamchadales draw from these storehouses, but never fail to replace what they have taken with caviar or fish, in order not to di-ive these beneficent purveyors to despair. Many animal species have been reduced in numbers since the Russian hunters have begim the systematic work of extermination in these regions. The bearers of valuable furs, sables, ermines, gluttons, foxes, are now seldom met, and many hunt- ing stations have been abandoned since the disappearance of the game. But in Kamchatka from 6,000 to 9,000 sables are yearly taken and exported to Russia by American traders settled at Petropavlovsk and on the Okhotsk coast. The various species of foxes were so plentiful in the eighteenth century that though driven from the Kamchadale tents with blows of sticks, they would still retm-n to share the meal with the dogs. But now they have become very scarce, and the costly blue species is said to have been replaced by one bearing a white fur of little value. The work of extermination has been even more thorough in the seas, from which some species have disapjDcared altogether. Till the middle of the present centmy the whales were met in most abtmdance in the Bering waters, which were visited by hundreds of American whalers, especially from New Bedford and other New Eng- land ports. But these waters, like those of Spitzbergen and other parts of the Atlantic, are now frequented only by a few stray specimens, and none at all are said to be 408 ASIATIC EUSSIA. found west of Serdtze-Kamen. The soa-otters, whose fur is very valuable, a