MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Eastern Arizona PAUL S. MARTIN JOHN B. RINALDO WILLIAM A. LONGACRE FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY VOLUME 52 Published by CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM MAY 25, 1961 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Eastern Arizona jHHMH AERIAL VIEW OF HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO AND SURROUNDING TERRAIN MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Eastern Arizona PAUL S. MARTIN Chief Curator, Department of Anthropology JOHN B. RINALDO Assistant Curator, Archaeology WILLIAM A. LONGACRE Field Assistant FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY VOLUME 52 Published by CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM MAY 25, 1961 Edited by Lillian A. Ross Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-11183 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM PRESS Preface Field Season of 1959 This is the third report in a projected series of monographs on the archaeology of the drainage of the Upper Little Colorado River. In this territory lie the towns of Springerville, St. Johns, Show Low and Vernon, Arizona. After investigating the Mogollon sequence of the Reserve, New Mex- ico, area for about fifteen seasons, and finding that that area had been abandoned probably during the thirteenth century, we were eager to find out where the Mogollon Indians moved to, why they emigrated, and what became finally of the cultural elements that they had devel- oped. Did these elements disappear, leaving no traces? Or had they been passed on to other groups, and if so, would we be able to detect them? Had Mogollon influences filtered into the Zuni area or had Mogollon people themselves left their ancient homeland in the mountains of west- ern New Mexico and migrated in to the Zuni region proper? From preliminary surveys and from a thorough search of the literature on the prehistory of the Upper Little Colorado River we felt we might have some success in finding answers to a few of the questions posed above if we were to pursue archaeological reconnaissance and excavation of key sites in the Upper Little Colorado River drainage. We moved the base of our operations in 1956 to Vernon, Arizona, and Dr. John Rinaldo initiated there an archaeological survey late that sum- mer. Two monographs concerning our work have already appeared (Martin and Rinaldo, 1960a, b). It would appear now that Mogollon or Mogollon-like traits had pen- etrated this area perhaps as early as a.d. 900 or earlier. But it also is possible that another group (descendants of the people who were respon- sible for the Concho Complex?) was already in the area. Our present impression of the course of events in the Vernon area is that by a.d. 1000 or a.d. 1100, certainly, Mogollon traits were becoming more popular. At least they were more abundant than in the centuries just previous to a.d. 1000 and we can recognize correlations between the later Mogollon 3 4 PREFACE sites of the Pine Lawn-Reserve area of New Mexico and the twelfth to fourteenth century sites of the Upper Little Colorado. Two sites and the results of our archaeological reconnaissance are described in this publication. The Mineral Creek Site — a dozen surface contiguous rooms and a circular Great Kiva (perhaps a village in the formative stage) — is perhaps a century or two earlier than the Hooper Ranch Pueblo, which consisted of about 60 rooms and 3 kivas (fig. 1). There is a chronological hiatus between them. Definite relationships between these sites and some in the Pine Lawn-Reserve area (New Mexico) were observed. The Mineral Creek Site (SE ^, NW y A , Sec. 13, Twp. 10 N., R. 25 E., G.S.R.M.) is located on land owned by Mr. Earl Thode of Vernon, Ari- zona. This is the second site we have dug on Mr. Thode's ranch, and we are grateful for this courtesy and for permission to bring the artifacts to Chicago for study and display. The Hooper Ranch Pueblo is located at the edge of the present chan- nel of the Little Colorado River (Sec. 8, Twp. 9 N., R. 29 E., G.S.R.M.). It is owned by Mr. Robert B. Hooper. Mr. and Mrs. Hooper generously gave us permission to dig the site and to bring materials recovered to the Museum for study and display. We are grateful to these friends who gave us access to the ruins and who helped us most of all by watching our progress and evincing enthu- siasm for our work. Mr. William Longacre, graduate student at the University of Chicago, conducted the survey and found over 100 sites. His report is included in this volume. The field party consisted of myself, as leader of the expedition; Dr. Rinaldo, in charge of the digging operations; Mrs. Martha Perry, cook; and the following students and diggers: Margaret Alder and Mark Winter, who classified and tabulated the sherds and maintained the field catalogue of specimens; Roland Strassburger, photographer and general assistant; Paul Curtis, Jr., Michael Fox, Joe Goodman, Martin Hoffman, and Alfred Padilla. Mrs. John Rinaldo helped wash sherds whenever necessary. In the early stages of the work Mr. Howard An- derson, a member of the staff of the Department of Anthropology, assisted in maintenance work, in digging, and in cataloging. After he returned to the Museum Mr. Anderson ground 100 thin sections of pottery for petrographic analysis. Mr. Allen Liss, also of this department, aided us in the latter half of the season by taking up where Mr. Anderson had left off and by lending a hand in final packing and closing camp. To all of these assistants and friends, I am happy to make personal acknowledg- UTAH COLORADO ! MEXICO Fig. 1 . Map showing location of Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo, Arizona. 6 PREFACE ment of my appreciation for their cooperation, industry, and skills in all phases of the work. Without their good will the expedition would have foundered. Much time and great efforts were expended by Dr. Albert W. Forslev, Associate Curator of Mineralogy, and Mr. Bertram G. Woodland, Asso- ciate Curator of Petrology, in examining the potter's clay and the unfired bowl, both described in Chapter IV. Mr. Forslev took samples of both specimens and made analyses of the clay minerals and size distribution of the materials in the two samples. Mr. Woodland made petrographic examinations of the 100 thin sections of pottery and supervised in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres on the clay samples mentioned above and on sherds from the Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo. But they went far beyond the necessary but routine analyses. Through- out the long time period required for these jobs they evinced great en- thusiasm for our project and interest in our problems. We are grateful to them and to Mr. Anderson, who not only produced the 100 thin sec- tions but also assisted Dr. Forslev and Mr. Woodland in other ways. Dr. Fritz Haas examined and identified the shells and for this we are grateful. Mr. Leigh Richey, of St. Johns, Arizona, gave unstintingly of his time and priceless knowledge of the archaeological aspects of the area. His generous attitude was a source of inspiration for all of us, and his assist- ance was invaluable to our archaeological reconnaissance and to Mr. Longacre, who was conducting it. Gratitude is also expressed to others who helped Mr. Longacre in locating sites. Their knowledge and assistance brought much to our attention that might easily have escaped notice: Mr. and Mrs. Wayne Brinkenhoff, Mrs. Vincent Butler, Mr. William Castro, Mrs. Jewel Cowley, Mrs. E. Highwood, Mrs. Leola Mineer, Mr. Gilbert Sogge, and Mr. and Mrs. Harvey Wilhelm. Many other friends and neighbors in and near Vernon deserve more than this brief mention for their sterling friendship, for their interest in our daily progress, and for their eagerness to give unsparingly of time and effort without question of convenience to themselves. Living in an urban community as I do, I value highly these almost forgotten pleasing traits. These friends and neighbors are : Mr. and Mrs. Tom Cox, Mr. and Mrs. Lester Curtis, Mr. George Dutson, Mr. and Mrs. Don Goodman, Messrs. Charles, Leon and Milton Gillespie and their families, Mr. Cecil Naegle, the Nikolous brothers, Mr. and Mrs. Leonard Penrod, Mr. and Mrs. Floyd Penrod, Dr. Max E. Taylor, Mr. Glen Stratton and Mr. and Mrs. Eben Whiting. PREFACE 7 Dr. Charles W. Keney of Gallup, New Mexico, was our medical ad- viser and served us in person and by long distance telephone with dis- tinction and without charge. Mr. Clair E. Gurley, President of Central Motor Company of Gallup, gave us much aid and provided us with motor vehicles at a minimum charge. To both of these friends I am deeply obligated. Miss Lillian Ross, Associate Editor of Scientific Publications, has again smoothed out my maladroit mode of speech and has supplied felicitous, clear phrases for turgid ones. We thank her for her consum- mate skill in editing. Miss Lillian Novak typed the sherd tabulations that are published on microcard. Mrs. Virginia Turner, my secretary, has patiently typed and retyped the manuscript so often that she can quote almost whole paragraphs. I am indeed grateful to her for this and for her skill and dispatch. Once again, and for the twenty-fifth time, it is my pleasure to express our very special appreciation and gratitude to President Stanley Field and to Dr. Clifford C. Gregg, Director, for backing our archaeological researches with an interest that is probably unmatched. Chapters I, II, and III were written by Dr. Rinaldo, Chapter V by Mr. Longacre, and Chapters IV and VI by me. Paul S. Martin June, 1960 Contents PAGE List of Illustrations 13 Architectural Details, Mineral Creek Site 17 Walls 17 Foundation 17 Types of Masonry 17 Dimensions 17 Materials 17 Joints 17 Spalls 17 Mortar 18 Plaster 18 Doorways 18 Ventilator 18 Floors and Floor Features 18 Floors 18 Bins 18 Firepits 18 Ceilings 23 Height 23 Construction 23 Artifacts 23 Great Kiva 23 Shape 23 Dimensions 23 Walls 23 Floor 23 Lateral Entrance 23 Hearth Area 23 Pits 23 Postholes 24 Grooves 26 Vaults 26 Roof 26 Pottery 26 Artifacts 26 General Comments 26 Burials in Mineral Creek Site 29 9 10 CONTENTS PAGE II. Architectural Details, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 30 Location of Site 30 Deposits 30 Room Dimensions 30 Walls 31 Foundations 31 General Construction 31 Wall Stones 33 Mortar 33 Spalls 33 Plaster 33 Masonry Type I 33 Masonry Type II 33 Masonry Type III 34 Dimensions 35 Doorways 35 Ventilator 37 Niches 38 Floors 39 Materials 39 Alterations 39 Bins 39 Firepits 40 Ash Pit 40 Ceilings or Roofs 41 Height 41 Type 41 Post Roof Supports 42 Kiva I 42 Location 42 Shape 44 Dimensions 44 Walls 44 Plaster 44 Floor 44 Firepit 44 Ash Pits 45 Damper 45 Platform 45 Ventilator 45 Vault 46 Niches 46 Roof 46 Artifacts 46 Kiva II 46 Location 46 Shape 46 Dimensions 46 Walls 46 CONTENTS 1 1 PAGE Plaster 46 Floor 48 Firepit and Ash Pit 48 Damper 48 Platform 48 Ventilator 48 Roof 48 Artifacts 48 General Arrangement of Pueblo Parts 48 Sequence of Construction 50 Uses of Rooms 53 Pictographs 53 General Comments 56 Summary of Architecture of Both Pueblos 60 III. Artifacts from Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo ... 62 Ground and Pecked Stone Artifacts 62 Polished Stone Artifacts 63 Chipped Stone Artifacts 63 Shell Objects 64 Bone Objects 64 Baked Clay Artifacts 65 The Uses of Artifacts 65 Comparisons of Artifacts 97 Possible Foreign Artifacts 108 Summary 108 IV. Pottery from Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo .... 112 General Remarks 112 Pottery from Mineral Creek Site 113 Vessel Shapes of Pottery from Mineral Creek Site 119 Decorated Types 119 Textured Types 119 Plain Types 119 Technological Analysis of Pottery from Mineral Creek Site 119 Native versus Trade Types 120 Significance of Pottery Types from Mineral Creek Site 121 Pottery from Hooper Ranch Pueblo 122 Vessel Shapes of Pottery from Hooper Ranch Pueblo 1 28 Bowls 128 Bowls and Jars 128 Jars 128 Technological Analysis of Pottery from Hooper Ranch Pueblo . . . . 1 28 Significance of Pottery Types from Hooper Ranch Pueblo 1 33 Summary 142 V. An Archaeological Survey in the Upper Little Colorado Drainage of East-Central Arizona 147 Acknowledgments 147 12 CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 148 Organization 149 Field Procedure 150 Topographic-Ecological Setting 150 The Little Colorado River Valley 153 The Triangle 154 Snowflake-Mesa Redonda 155 Pottery Distributions 155 Plain Wares 155 Snowflake Black-on-White-Reserve Black-on-White 156 Tularosa Black-on-White 157 St. Johns Polychrome 157 Settlement Pattern 157 Littie Colorado Valley 157 The Triangle 159 Snowflake-Mesa Redonda 159 Survey Comparisons 161 Summary and Conclusions 163 VI. Summary 165 Mineral Creek Site 165 Hooper Ranch Pueblo 165 The Archaeological Survey 1 69 Bibliography 170 Index 177 List of Illustrations Aerial view of Hooper Ranch Pueblo and surrounding terrain .... Frontispiece Text Figures PAGE 1. Map showing location of Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo, Arizona 5 2. Mineral Creek Site, looking south; unexcavated portion on right 18 3. Ground plan and sections of excavated portion of Mineral Creek Site ... 19 4. North wall of Room 1 , Mineral Creek Site 20 5. South wall of Room 2, Mineral Creek Site 20 6. Firepit in Room 5, and ventilator through partition wall between Rooms 1 and 5, showing construction 21 7. Firepit and bins in Room 5, Mineral Creek Site 22 8. Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site, from the west; entryway in background, vaults, postholes and grooves in foreground 24 9. Ground plan and sections of Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site 25 10. Detail of south vault in Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site, showing stone lining 27 11. Burial 1, Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site 28 12. Hooper Ranch Pueblo, looking north; unexcavated Great Kiva in foreground 31 1 3. Ground plan and sections of Hooper Ranch Pueblo 32 14. Masonry (Type I) in north wall of Room 1-B, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . . 34 15. Rubble masonry (Type II) in north wall of Room 13A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 35 16. Banded masonry (Type III) in north wall of Room 4A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 36 17. Rectangular doorway in east wall of Room 3 A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, show- ing construction of sill and sides 36 18. Ventilator through partition wall between Rooms 8A and 12A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing construction of lintel and sides 37 1 9. Doorway and niche to right in east wall of Room 1 B, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . 38 20. Room 9A, showing features of Floor I, firepit in foreground and bin in back- ground; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 39 21. Room 4A, Floor II, showing distribution of artifacts left on floor around fire- pit and postholc; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 40 22. Room 2B, possibly a storeroom, showing central post for roof support; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 41 23. Bin next to south wall of Room 9A, Floor I, showing details of construction and stone-slab lining; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 42 13 14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 24. Rectangular firepit with stone slab sides, Room 5B; pot supports inside fire- pit; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 43 25. Firepit, ash pit and post for roof support, Room 6B, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . 43 26. Kiva I, showing firepit, south platform, ventilator tunnel through platform, and grinding stones near ventilator tunnel; Hooper Ranch Pueblo ... 44 27. Masonry (Type I) in east wall of Kiva I, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 45 28. Central portion of floor and north wall of Kiva I, showing firepit, foot-drum type vault, and kachina niche; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 47 29. West end of Kiva II, showing firepit, ash pit, platform and ventilator com- plex; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 49 30. Room 6 A in foreground; its southwest corner is built on top of north half of Room 1C, middle right; Hooper Ranch Pueblo 51 31. Diagonal bond, northwest corner of Room 2B, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . . 51 32. Abutment in northeast corner of Room IB, continuing up into center of east wall of Room 1A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 52 33. Panel of pictographs on north wall of Room 3A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . . 54 34. Panel of pictographs on north wall of Room 5A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . . 54 35. Geometric pictograph on wall stone from Kiva I, fill, Hooper Ranch Pueblo . 55 36. Worked potsherds, miniature ladle fragment, and animal effigy fragment . 66 37. Pipe mold and grinding stones 67 38. Manos, miscellaneous types 68 39. Painted manos and an early type of mano 69 40. Rubbing stones 70 41. Abrading stones and pesdes 71 42. Hammerstones 72 43. Metates 73 44. Small metate-like grinding stones 75 45. Painted slabs 76 46. Mortars and stone bowls 77 47. Large mortar 78 48. Axes 79 49. Mauls 80 50. Small choppers, biface type at left, uniface at right 81 51. Large choppers 81 52. Notched stone slab and stone ring slab 82 53. Arrow-shaft abraders and grooved stones 83 54. Small scrapers 84 55. Large scrapers 85 56. Flake knives and blades 86 57. Projectile points, miscellaneous types 87 58. Necklace with turquoise pendant, shell pendants and beads 88 59. Stone ornaments, animal effigy, disc, and faceted hematite 89 60. Shell pendants and fragments of shell bracelet 90 61. Bone rings and ring material, and bone pendants 91 62. Bone awls, miscellaneous types 92 63. Flakers made of antler and bone, bone disc fragment, and wrench made of antler 93 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 15 PAGE 64. Arrow-shaft straighteners 94 65. Bone tubes and whistles 95 66. Pottery pipe and jar plug 96 67. Pot covers 97 68. Polishing stones 98 69. Axe-sharpening stone 99 70. Medicine cylinders 100 71. Whetstone, smooth saw, miniature mauls, arrow-shaft tool, hoe, small discs and small bowl 105 72. Saws, drills, punches, and graver 107 73. Duck effigy, Reserve Black-on-White, Mineral Creek Site 113 74. Seed-jar, San Francisco Red, Mineral Creek Site 114 75. Wingate Black-on-Red (?) bowl, Mineral Creek Site 114 76. Snowflake Black-on-White sherds from Mineral Creek Site 116 77. Reserve Black-on-White sherds from Mineral Creek Site 117 78. Tularosa Black-on-White sherds from Mineral Creek Site 118 79. Four Mile Polychrome bowl, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 123 80. Drawing of interior of kachina bowl, Four Mile Polychrome, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 123 81. Four Mile Polychrome(P) bowl, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 124 82. Pinedale Polychrome bowl, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 124 83. St. Johns Polychrome bowl, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 125 84. Tularosa Black-on-White canteen, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 125 85. Tularosa Black-on-White pitcher, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 126 86. St. Johns Black-on-Red bowl, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 126 87. Woodruff Smudged bowl, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 1 27 88. Pinnawa Glaze-on-White bowl, found by Mr. Ernest Becker north of Spring- erville, Arizona 127 89. Reserve Black-on-White sherds, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 135 90. Tularosa Black-on-White sherds, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 1 36 91. St. Johns Polychrome sherds, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 137 92. Pinedale Black-on-Red sherds, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 138 93. Pinedale Polychrome sherds, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 139 94. Heshota-uthla Polychrome sherds, Hooper Ranch Pueblo 140 95. Sherds from Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Top row: Kwakina Polychrome. Middle row: Kwakina Polychrome type, interior, and Houck Polychrome type, exterior. Bottom row : Houck or Querino Polychrome type, interior, Houck Polychrome type, exterior 141 96. Area covered by archaeological survey, east-central Arizona 152 L Architectural Details, Mineral Creek Site This pueblo is situated on a high bank above the bottom land of the creek for which it is named, and about two and a half miles east of Vernon, Arizona. It is located on the ranch of Mr. Earl Thode, in a pasture just south of the Springerville-Show Low highway. The pueblo (figs. 2 and 3) appears to have been built in the form of a rectangle, possibly three or four rooms in width. South of this block of rooms is the Great Kiva (see pp. 23-26). This Great Kiva and six rooms of the pueblo were excavated. WALLS Foundation. — No prepared footing; masonry starts on sterile gravelly clay 10-20 cm. above floor level. Types of Masonry. — Type I (fig. 4) : A composite product of selected large boulders of igneous rock (scoria), of rough-hewn sandstone blocks, and of oval cobbles; the boulders and larger blocks of sandstone were laid with flat side toward room in fairly even courses with thick mud mortar; courses of larger stones (15 to 30 cm. long) alternate with courses of smaller stones (10 to 15 cm. long) and some stream cobbles. Both sizes of stones are generally oblong in proportion. Courses were leveled and chinks between the courses were filled in with some small pebbles. Type II (fig. 5): Generally used in opposite face of wall with Type I masonry; made up of cobbles, smaller pebbles and some igneous rocks laid flat side toward room, with thick mud mortar; little attempt at cours- ing; appearance crude. Dimensions. — Walls range from 28 to 40 cm. in width (average 32 cm.); height of standing walls 35 to 80 cm. Thickness same at base as at top of wall. Materials. — Wall-stones are predominantly of igneous rocks such as basalt and scoria; some sandstone was used. Joints. — Not intentionally broken; there was no consistent pattern of broken joints. Spalls. — No true bearing spalls; some thin flat and round pebbles fill chinks. 17 18 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 2. Mineral Creek Site, looking south; unexcavated portion on right. Mortar. — Of dark brown mud; usually soft. Plaster. — Single thin layer of gray adobe mud; undecorated. Doorways. — No lateral doorways; entrance possibly through hatchways in roofs. Ventilator (fig. 6). — In east wall of Room 5 an adobe threshold 17 cm. above floor; opening 30 cm. wide, 26 cm. high, narrows down on side adjoining Room 1 to 21 cm. wide; sides of slabs set on edge. FLOORS AND FLOOR FEATURES Floors. — Of gravelly clay; uneven. Bins (fig. 7). — A series of three was built against the west wall of Room 5 opposite firepit and ventilator; the bottoms were stone slabs and the walls were built of slabs set on edge; each bin was 29-38 cm. wide, and 16-27 cm. deep. Firepits (fig. 6). — In three rooms; one rectangular and two generally oval. One in Room 3 was rectangular, near center of floor, no rim; lined with adobe and gravel; ash-filled; 40 by 40 cm., 8 cm. deep. One in Room 4 has stone-rimmed sides, gravel bottom; ash-filled; 45 by 44 cm., SECTION 8 TEST TRENCH ^>,. Great Kiva • posthole c PIT M HEARTH G BURIAL V VAULT □ UNDISTURBED CLAY FlREPlT rP ABUTMENT I - — J BOND Fig. 3. Ground plan and sections of excavated portion of Mineral Creek Site. 19 Fig. 4. North wall of Room 1, Mineral Creek Site. Meter stick at right center. I - 1 I Fig. 5. South wall of Room 2, Mineral Creek Site. Meter stick at center. 20 Fig. 6. Firepit in Room 5 and ventilator through partition wall between Rooms 1 and 5, showing construction. Arrow points magnetic north. 21 Fig. 7. Firepit and bins in Room 5, Mineral Creek Site. Meter stick in back- ground; arrow points magnetic north. 22 ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, MINERAL CREEK SITE 23 18 cm. deep. One in Room 5 is set in floor so that the top of the sides, made of slabs set on edge, protrudes above floor level; ash-filled; 53 by 30 cm., 20 cm. deep. CEILINGS Height. — Not known. On basis of number of fallen wall rocks and highest standing walls estimated at about 2 meters. Construction. — Known only by inference; presence of a single large post- hole (50 cm. diameter; containing charcoal), a section of burned beam and small pieces of burned adobe in Room 2 indicates that a single main beam ran across the narrow dimension (north and south) with poles rest- ing on that (and possibly on top of the end walls), and with splints or brush and clay as the top layers. ARTIFACTS No whole or restorable pottery vessels were found on the floors of the rooms (the burial in Room 1 was in a shallow pit). Metates were found in Rooms 1, 2, 3 and 5. Those in Rooms 2 and 3 were broken; one in Room 5 was near the northwest corner; one in Room 1 was in the south- west quadrant. Manos found in the same rooms on the floor were not in direct association. GREAT KIVA (Figures 8-10) Shape. — Generally round with a slight tendency for the east walls on either side of the entrance to be straight rather than curved. Dimensions. — Greatest inside diameter 9.3 (north to south) by 9.0 me- ters (east to west). Walls. — Of native gravelly earth covered with coating of mixed adobe and sand. Small patch of rubble masonry veneer in northwest quadrant consisted of stream cobbles and some flat stones; masonry very crude. Floor. — Gravelly earth with coating of mixed adobe and sand; undu- lating surface, not even. Lateral Entrance. — Steep, short lateral ramp located near center of east side. Width at inner end 1.5 meters, at outer end 73 cm.; length, 1.0 meter. Hearth Area. — Generally oval burned region with ashes and charcoal on surface, 1.5 by 2.0 meters; located near center between vaults. Pits. — Four were found. Three, at entrance, were round, shallow, and basin-like, with intersecting rims; diameter at mouth 40 to 80 cm., at bottom 30 to 70 cm.; depth, 15 to 20 cm. One, north of northern vault, was 60 cm. in diameter and 15 cm. deep. Walls and floor were 24 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 8. Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site, from the west; entryway in background, vaults, postholes and grooves in foreground. compact, light-colored gravelly soil. Pits contained dark brown soil and flecks of charcoal. Postholes. — Four primary, three secondary, two doubtful. The pri- mary postholes, vaults and grooves form a large rectangle in the center of the kiva; least diameter, 35 cm.; greatest diameter, 60 cm.; least depth, 55 cm.; greatest depth, 60 cm. There was one primary posthole in each quadrant, two of these in line with vaults or grooves. N k 1 2 3 4 5 C PIT E FLOOR H HEARTH G BURIAL V VAULT • POSTHOLE 9 DOUBTFUL POSTHOLE UNDISTURBED CLAY Section A - A' Fig. 9. Ground plan and sections of Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site. 25 26 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Grooves. — Three in number (including vaults) : one between primary postholes in southwest and northwest quadrant; one connecting north vault and primary posthole in northeast quadrant; and one connecting south vault and primary posthole in southeast quadrant. West groove stone-slab-lined. Vaults. — Two in number, one on either side of hearth area. The sides and ends of the south vault were lined with stone slabs set on edge. Scattered slabs were found in the north vault. There was a slightly slant- ing shelf on the north and south sides of both vaults (fig. 10). Roof. — Beams rested on primary posts. On these rested poles running north and south (charred poles found). The poles were covered with splints or brush, covered with adobe (evidence from impressions in burned roof clay). Pottery. — See Chapter IV. Artifacts. — Mortar, pestle, paint palette, choppers, scrapers, and knives were found on floor. A large piece of red petrified wood (length, 18 cm., width, 12 cm.) was found near the west end of the south vault; another of the same size was found beneath the hearth area. GENERAL COMMENTS Although Room 4 burned, the fire did not spread to other rooms in the pueblo. Test pits dug through the floor levels revealed only sterile gravelly clay. The crude character of the masonry in general, the unequal size of the rooms, and their lack of symmetry may represent a stage in architectural development roughly parallel to that of South Leggett Pueblo in the Reserve area, although the ceramics indicate a more ad- vanced stage. The alignment of ventilator, firepit and bins in Room 5 seems to sug- gest something parallel to the rooms at Higgins Flat Pueblo, Apache Creek Pueblo, and Foote Canyon Pueblo in the Reserve area, where there was a similar arrangement of ventilator, firepit and mealing receptacles. The Great Kiva, the largest structure in the village, was several times the size of any one of the rooms. It seems possible that the circular shape of the structure is an Anasazi feature, since all Anasazi Great Kivas thus far excavated have been circular (Roberts, F. H. H., 1929, pp. 73- 90; 1932, pp. 86-98; 1939, pp. 127-136; Martin, P. S., 1936, pp. 46-51; 1939, pp. 350, 356; Morris, E. H., 1921, pp. 115-138; 1939, pp. 82-83; Hewett, E. L., 1936, pp. 93-97; Judd, N. M., 1954, p. 33, fig. 3). On the other hand — and these may equally well be precursors of the Mineral Creek Great Kiva — most of the Mogollon Great Kivas occupied before Fig. 10. Detail of south vault in Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site, showing stone lining. Scale in 10 cm. units at left. 27 28 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 11. Burial 1, Great Kiva, Mineral Creek Site. a.d. 700 such as Pithouse A at the SU Site (Martin and Rinaldo, 1940, p. 14), House 5 at the Bluff Site (Haury and Sayles, 1947, p. 21), Pit- house 9 at the Crooked Ridge Site (Wheat, 1954, p. 58), and the Bear Ruin Kiva (Haury, 1940, p. 43) are also generally circular or rounded in floor plan. It is possible that the short lateral entryway on the east side may also be a carry-over from the earlier Mogollon Great Kivas. Similar entry- ways were noted in Pithouse A at the SU Site, and in Pithouse B at Pro- montory Site (Martin, Rinaldo and Antevs, 1949, p. 86). Of course, it is also possible that this recess contained ventilator apparatus of some perishable material and was not used as an entryway at all. The arrangement of the large primary postholes and of the vaults and grooves outlining a rectangular area around the hearth is suggestive of similar layouts of grooves and/or vault-like pits at the Sawmill Site Great Kiva (Bluhm, 1957, fig. 3), Pithouse K at Turkey Foot Ridge (Martin ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, MINERAL CREEK SITE 29 and Rinaldo, 1950a, p. 284, fig. 101), and Pithouses 9 and 19 at Crooked Ridge Village (Wheat, 1954, pp. 58-62). The north and south vaults — flanking as they do the entryway hearth area alignment of the structure — recall vaguely the much more elaborate flanking vaults in Anasazi Great Kivas, as well as some single "foot- drum" vaults in smaller kivas such as Kiva A at the Village of the Great Kivas (Roberts, Frank H. H., 1932, p. 58). On the other hand, the grooves connecting the vaults and the primary postholes near the en- trance are like the grooves in the Mogollon Great Kivas and bear only a vague analogy (in position) to the terraces which connect the two vaults and the closest southern posts in the Anasazi Great Kivas. BURIALS IN MINERAL CREEK SITE (Figure 11) Five burials were encountered at Mineral Creek Site, three inside the Great Kiva, one in a secular room, and one in the trash to the east of these structures. All of the burials were flexed. Three had objects associated with them and were buried in pits that had been excavated through the floor. Two of the burials had pottery and other objects associated with them, the third only a large fragment of worked slab. Three were ori- ented with their heads to the south, one with the head toward the east and another with the head toward the west. One, a very young infant, was buried in the fill of the Great Kiva, with no associated objects. An- other, a few years older, was buried in a shallow pit that had been exca- vated through the fill and floor of Room 1; it was accompanied by a duck effigy vessel and a necklace. A third, of adolescent age, was in- terred in a relatively deep pit near the west wall of the Great Kiva. A worked slab had been placed (or had fallen) in the pit. A number of large heavy stones were found above this burial, and some thin disk-shaped stone spalls in the fill nearby. One of these spalls had red paint on the surface and could have been used as a palette. A fourth burial, an adult, was accompanied by a black-on-red bowl and a red seed bowl which con- tained a projectile point and some chips; choppers, scrapers and polishing stones were found in the fill nearby. The fifth burial, an older individual, had been placed in shallow trash without any associated artifacts. All the burials post-dated the occupation of the structure in which they were interred. II. Architectural Details, Hooper Ranch Pueblo LOCATION OF SITE The Hooper Ranch Pueblo (figs. 12 and 13) is located on the east bank of the Little Colorado River about four miles downstream (north) of Springerville, where the gorge opens into the first valley north of Round Valley (Sec. 8, Twp. 9 N., R. 29 E., G.S.R.M.). Before excavation it formed a mound standing some 8 feet high, 100 feet wide and 135 feet long. The wall outlines of some of the rooms could be easily followed, and the pueblo as a whole appeared to be of rectangular shape, with a large rectangular Great Kiva at the south end. It contained perhaps fifty or sixty rooms in the upper habitation level. The site attracted us because the height of the mound and the pottery on the surface seemed to offer an opportunity to obtain stratigraphy and a local sequence in a relatively late site. DEPOSITS The upper levels of the rooms in the southwest quadrant of the mound (Rooms 1A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, and 7 A) were filled with refuse. The fill was ashy and contained large quantities of unworked animal bone, broken pottery, fragmentary artifacts, and other trash. This level did not extend down to the uppermost floor. Usually brown adobe clay, occasional roof timbers and other remnants of the ceiling were encountered above the floors of the upper habitation level. East or north of this area less refuse material was encountered in the fill. The rooms of the lower habitation level were intentionally filled. This fill consisted chiefly of brown sandy clay and some rock. It was not ashy, and in general there were fewer artifacts or potsherds than in the fill of the upper habitation level. In a number of instances walls had been built on this clay fill. ROOM DIMENSIONS The smallest secular room in the upper habitation level, Room 17A, possibly a storeroom, was 2.5 meters long and 2.1 meters wide. The largest room, Room 5 A, a dwelling room, was 3.85 meters long and 3.3 meters wide. 30 ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 31 Fig. 12. Hooper Ranch Pueblo, looking north; unexcavated Great Kiva in fore- ground. The rooms in the lower habitation level ranged both smaller and larger. The smallest room, Room IB, measured 2.05 meters long by 1.6 meters wide; the largest, Room 5B, measured 4.5 meters long by 3.3 meters wide. Rooms in the upper habitation level averaged a very little longer. All rooms were roughly rectangular in floor plan. WALLS Foundations. — No trenches, large rock or other prepared foundations were discovered; the walls were based on about 10 to 20 cm. of adobe clay above sandstone bedrock, or less often on sandy clay and rock fill. General Construction. — Most of the walls were constructed of composite stone masonry and consisted of two faces more or less interlocked near the center of the wall. There was no true core; some adobe mortar and occa- sionally a small pebble were found between stones or faces at the center of the wall. Rarely, a large, flat, rectangular slab had been laid as a a FIREPIT • POST CD □ DOORWAY i c»g i SCALED DOOR JZDCU VENTILATOR h"* WALL ABUTMENT P WALL BONO w FLOOR I FLOOR n FLOOR m UPPER HABITATION LEVEL LOWER HABITATION LEVEL UNEXCAVATEO AREA VENTILATOR TUNNEL NICHE FLAGSTONES BEOROCK Fig. 13. Ground plan and sections of Hooper Ranch Pueblo. 32 ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 33 through stone from one wall surface to the opposite one. Component horizontal slabs were laid up in a layer of mud mortar half a centimeter thick. There was no consistent pattern in the placement of the vertical joints. Some joints were broken near the middle of the stone in the next course above, others near the end of this stone. Joints range from stone- to-stone contact up to 4 cm. wide. Wall Stones. — Local tan or red sandstone had been quarried in (1) long, thick slabs, or (2) short, thin slabs, or (3) chunks with some flat faces. Most of the stones were rough hewn, some with flat, dimpled surfaces; there were many laminated slabs. Large slabs were used in vertical slab (Type I) masonry (see below); average 57 cm. long and 39 cm. wide; up to 123 cm. long and 69 cm. wide. Mortar. — A mixture of light brown or gray adobe clay and some sand; ranges from soft and crumbly to quite hard (can be scratched with pen knife); most of it is hard. Spalls. — Small stone flakes and small, thin, flat, stone slabs were used ordinarily; rounded pebbles and potsherds were rare; spalls were inserted or laid in mortar to level up the courses, to fill in the voids, or, more fre- quently, to keep the wet mortar from squeezing out when the upper courses of stones were laid up. All spalls have one edge flush with the joints. Plaster. — Walls of all except three rooms were plastered with one or two layers. Coats from 2 mm. to 30 mm. thick. The first coat — thicker and of coarser texture than the second coat — filled in the uneven surface of the masonry. The second coat was thin and of fine texture. The sur- face was undecorated and was dark gray or brown in color. Masonry Type I (fig. 14). — A characteristic feature is large slabs set on edge as part of one face, usually as a course at the base of the wall, occa- sionally in courses above. Slabs were occasionally set 5 to 10 cm. apart and spaces between them were filled with small, thin slabs laid in a thick adobe cushion. Where the large slabs were rectangular, one or more small, thin slabs had been set vertically in chinks between them. Slabs were set on edge at the base of 18 walls; they were set in courses above the base in two walls where they alternated with several courses of thin slabs laid horizontally between them. This type of masonry was used in one or both faces of a wall, and the opposite face was ordi- narily composed of Type II (rubble) masonry or Type III (banded) masonry. Masonry Type II (fig. 15). — This type is rubble masonry ordinarily of composite construction (two faces) built up of slabs and chunks of sand- 34 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO stone of various sizes laid in mud mortar. Bedding planes (horizontal joints) slope and are not continuous; courses change in thickness and are irregular and inconsistent. Stones in particular courses are not matched in size or color. Several thin slabs may be used to continue a bedding Fig. 14. Masonry slabs set on edge (Type I) in north wall of Room 1-B, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Meter stick at left. plane set by a series of thicker slabs. Straight, flat surfaces of chunks and slabs are set flush with the visible surface of the wall. Walls were not plumb and there were many minor chinks and undulations in masonry surfaces; these rough places usually had been smoothed over with plaster. Masonry Type III (fig. 16). — This type is banded masonry, also of com- posite construction; it slightly resembles Chaco masonry in exterior ap- ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 35 pearance (cf. Judd, 1954, pi. 5, fig. 2) but lacks the rubble core of Chaco masonry. It was built up of large, long slabs of approximately equal thickness (10 to 15 cm.) laid in even courses and alternating with bands of small, thin slabs and chips of laminate sandstone, both laid up in mud mortar. The courses are fairly level and neat-appearing; the stones are Fig. 15. Rubble masonry (Type II) in north wall of Room 13A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Meter stick at right. laid in bands matched in thickness but not in length; the bands are not uniform in color, nor are they contrasted in color (as in some Chaco masonry). Dimensions. — Main walls are 25 cm. to 38 cm. thick; partition walls 20 cm. to 35 cm. thick; average thickness of walls 30 cm.; height of stand- ing walls 85 cm. to 268 cm.; longest continuous wall (unbroken by abut- ments) 17 meters. Doorways (fig. 17). — Rectangular in shape; usually located near the center of the side or end walls of the rooms. All are in the lower habita- 36 ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 37 Fig. 18. Ventilator through partition wall between Rooms 8 A and 12A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing construction of lintel and sides. Meter stick at right. tion level. Eight out of ten doors had been sealed, preventing entrance to other rooms. There were no exterior doorways. Sills were of thin stone slabs or masonry plastered over with adobe; lintels were more often of masonry, but in four instances were of stone slabs; sides were of masonry plastered over, except for one door, which had sides of stone slabs. Heights ranged from 38 cm. to 76 cm.; average, 57 cm. Widths ranged from 37 cm. to 55 cm.; average, 43 cm. Door sills ranged from 10 cm. to 66 cm. above floor level; average, 38 cm. Two with steps leading to them were 10 cm. and 20 cm. high. Ventilator (fig. 18). — One, which was found between Rooms 8 A and 12A, opened at the floor level of Room 8A, but 45 cm. above the floor of Room 12A; it was in the center of the north wall of Room 8 A, not in line with the firepit of that room or of Room 12A. The opening was 20 cm. square; a stone slab set on edge formed the west side, and it had a stone slab lintel. 38 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. Pueblo. 19. Doorway and niche to right in east wall of Room IB, Hooper Ranch Meter stick for scale. Niches (fig. 19). — One in the east wall of Room IB was rectangular in shape, adobe plaster lined, and located one meter above the floor south of the doorway. Height of opening 25 cm.; width of opening 15 cm. One in Room 2B, west wall, had a semicircular opening with a flat roof; it was plaster lined, and was 126 cm. above the floor near the southwest corner. Height of opening 12 cm.; width of opening 16 cm. There were two in Room 4A, Floor II, in the west wall, one with a semicircular opening, the other roughly circular, both plaster lined, 98 cm. and 90 cm. above floor. Height of openings 10 cm. and 12 cm.; width of both openings 12 cm. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 39 *&*Mir Fig. 20. Room 9A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing features of Floor I, firepit in foreground and bin in background. Meter stick in background; 50 cm. arrow points magnetic north. FLOORS (Figures 20-22) Materials. — A layer of hard-packed adobe with smooth surface finish, ordinarily dark gray on surface, tan or brown underneath. Range in thickness, 1 cm. to 15 cm.; average thickness, 6.5 cm. Alterations. — New surfaces had been added in some rooms (Rooms 2A, 3A, 9A); in other rooms floors were based on a fill of jumbled rock, adobe and sandy soil; fill separating floors ranges in thickness from 20 to 145 cm. Bins (fig. 23). — Against the south wall of Room 9A; side and ends were made of stone slabs set on edge, and the bottom was made of a horizontal slab; 52 cm. long, 48 cm. wide, 30 cm. deep. The shape was rectangular. A bin(?) with a low adobe rim was found in the southwest corner of Room 2B; 60 cm. long, 25 cm. wide. 40 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 21. Floor II, Room 4A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing distribution of artifacts left on floor around firepit and posthole. Meter stick in background; 50 cm. arrow points magnetic north. Firepits (fig. 24). — Eleven firepits were discovered in secular rooms. All were rectangular and lined with slabs set on edge; seven had slab- lined bottoms, three had clay and one a bedrock bottom; in six the long- est dimension ran north and south, in five it ran east and west; each was located near the center of the room; they ranged in length from 50 cm. to 68 cm., in width from 37 cm. to 60 cm., and in depth from 10 cm. to 32 cm. All firepits contained fine white ash and a very little charcoal. There was always a gap between the slabs at one or more corners. Up- right pot rest stones were found in six firepits. Ash Pit (fig. 25). — Part of the firepit in Room 6B and in the kivas partitioned from firepit by stone slab set on edge; rectangular in shape, ends and sides of slabs set on edge, bottom of bedrock. Filled with fine white ash. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 41 Fig. 22. Room 2B, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, possibly a storeroom, showing central post for roof support. Meter stick in background; 50 cm. arrow points magnetic north. CEILINGS OR ROOFS Height. — Actual height is not known. Highest standing wall 2.68 meters (Room 9A, Floor II), six others over two meters high. No beam holes or sockets located in walls. Length of posts for roof supports (see below) also indicates ceilings at least 2 meters high. Type. — Known only by inference. A few decayed beams and poles, adobe with impressions, and vertical roof supports suggest that a single large beam crossed one dimension of the room at about the middle, and that smaller secondary members crossed this at right angles, with the ends 42 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 23. Bin next to south wall of Room 9A, Floor I, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing details of construction and stone-slab lining. of both resting in the masonry of the walls; on top of the secondary poles were splints and then adobe. Post Roof Supports (fig. 25). — Posts for extra vertical roof support rested in holes located near the middle of four rooms of the lower habitation level (Rooms 2B, 6B, 12B, 4 A, Floor II). These posts were from 12 to 15 cm. in diameter and had been broken off at 130 to 148 cm. above the floor. The holes they rested in were 18 to 32 cm. deep. KIVA I (Figure 26) Location. — Centered between unexcavated rooms on the east and west in the south end of the pueblo. 43 44 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 26. Kiva I, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing firepit, south platform, venti- lator tunnel through platform, and grinding stones near ventilator tunnel. Meter stick in background; 50 cm. arrow points north. Shape. — Roughly rectangular, north wall longer than south wall. Dimensions. — Length (including south platform), 6.5 meters; width, 4.4 meters (north wall); greatest present height of wall, 154 cm. Walls. — Of composite masonry, Type I on interior (fig. 27; vertical slab). South platform faced with vertical slabs. Some slabs on edge were quite large; one leaning against west wall was 115 cm. long and 103 cm. wide. Chinked between vertical slabs with small thin slabs, set all around. The mortar was like that of the dwelling rooms. Plaster. — Three coats of gray, undecorated fine-textured adobe clay, layers 0.2 cm. to 0.5 cm. thick. Preserved only in patches, mostly on the east wall. Floor. — Layer of compact adobe clay, the surface dark gray, uneven; the two floors were separated in most areas by 5 to 10 cm. of sandy soil. Each layer was medium thick. Firepit (fig. 28). — Rectangular in shape, sides and bottom lined with stone slabs. Slabs for sides were set on edge and bottom slab was fitted. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 45 Fig. 27. Masonry of Type I (slabs set on edge) in east wall of Kiva I, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Meter stick at left. The firepit was filled with fine white ash and bits of charcoal. It was partitioned off from the ash pit by a stone slab. Length, 52 cm. (east and west); width, 48 cm.; depth, 18 cm. Ash Pits. — Same construction as firepit (see above), but narrower; 41 cm. wide; a secondary slab-lined ash pit, 20 cm. square, adjoins the primary pit on the east side. Both pits were filled with fine white ash. Damper. — Draft from the ventilator was controlled by a slab set in its mouth. No deflector was found. Platform. — On south end of room; the wall toward the room was faced with slabs set on edge. Height, 88 cm.; width (north to south), 130 cm.; width (east to west), 423 cm. There was a small area with a flagstone floor near the south wall of the west half. Ventilator. — A tunnel opening 48 cm. wide at the front of the plat- form, with side walls of rubble masonry; the tunnel axis was oriented toward the southwest. The roof possibly was made of sticks and clay. The floor, of earth, slopes up; height of wall at outer end, 80 cm. The 46 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO outer opening was closed by the north wall of an unexcavated larger kiva. The shaft narrowed to 44 cm. wide near the middle. Vault. — Roughly rectangular in shape, the sides and ends lined with stone slabs set on edge. Floor of rough bedrock. In the east end was a large black-on-white sherd containing two small tubular bone beads, in the west end a black-on-red sherd containing lumps of yellow pigment. Other lumps of yellow pigment were found in the center of the vault between the potsherds. The vault possibly was roofed with stone slabs (fragments of slabs on top of artifacts). It was located between the firepit and the central niche in the north wall (kachina kihu). Niches (fig. 28). — Located in north wall. One, 35 cm. square, has stone-slab sides, sill and lintel; passes through wall and under platform of Kiva II; about 30 cm. above floor and 45 cm. east of northwest cor- ner. The second niche, located near the center of the north wall, 20 cm. above floor level, is also lined with stone slabs; the side of the niche facing the kiva is made of a small semicircular slab with a hole through the center. Height of niche, 12.0 cm.; width, 18.0 cm. In line with venti- lator, firepit and vault. Roof. — No evidence. Artifacts. — A large heavy metate embedded in floor east of ventilator opening; a large circular matching stone west of opening. Pipe mold in ventilator tunnel on floor. Two painted slabs with smooth surfaces cov- ered with red paint, one on floor 50 cm. east of firepit, the other, in line with the first, east of the vault. KIVA II (Figure 29) Location. — Centered between rooms on the east and west, in the south end of the pueblo. Kiva I adjoins it on the south, Room 4A on the north. Shape. — Rectangular; main floor area nearly square. Dimensions. — Length (including platform), 4.1 meters (east and west); width, 3.8 meters; greatest present height of wall, 170 cm. Walls. — Slabs set on edge at base of north and east walls; above this course some banded masonry (Type III). South wall and west wall (above platform) of rubble masonry (Type II) built up of small slabs. The platform was faced with vertical slabs at base; rubble masonry above. The mortar was both gray and brown, sandy and fairly hard. Plaster. — Two layers of plaster, both undecorated, gray on the sur- face, brown underneath; each about 0.2 cm. thick. Fig. 28. Central portion of floor and north wall of Kiva I, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing firepit, foot-drum type vault, and kachina niche. Meter stick in background; 50 cm. arrow points magnetic north. 47 48 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Floor. — Composed of flagstones based on sand above bedrock, or clay and sand mixed. These stone slabs range in size from small (17 cm. long, 15 cm. wide) to large (132 cm. long, 122 cm. wide). The slabs were fitted like a mosaic. Firepit and Ash Pit. — Rectangular; the ash pit almost square. The fire- pit was lined on the sides with slabs set on edge; the bottom was bedrock. The ash pit was of the same construction but lacked slabs on the side toward the ventilator. Both pits were filled with fine white ash. Dimen- sions of firepit: Length, 50 cm.; width, 40 cm.; depth, 20 cm. Dimensions of ash pit: Length, 54 cm.; width, 51 cm.; depth, 20 cm. Damper. — A small thin slab found near the ventilator opening may have been used to control the draft. There was no deflector. Platform. — In west end of room; the front wall was faced with neat masonry of vertical slabs. The floor was adobe clay. Height, 56 cm.; width at south end, 112 cm.; width at north end, 105 cm. Ventilator. — A horizontal shaft through the center of the platform to a chimney-like vertical flue. The opening in the front of the platform, about 50 cm. wide and 30 cm. high, was framed by a horseshoe-shaped ring slab. A vertical shaft built out from the wall enclosed the flue, 18 cm. in diameter. A horizontal shaft, 86 cm. long, had walls of rubble plastered with adobe clay. A series of awl-sharpening marks on the lintel of the shaft opening. Roof. — Beams or poles were found crossing the short dimension of the room. There was no other evidence. Artifacts. — Circular metate-like grinding stone embedded in adobe floor to north of ash pit and ventilator opening. A large flagstone in the northwest quadrant had a grinding surface and a large spot of red pigment on the under side. Red pigment, blue pigment, and a piece of obsidian were found under other slabs. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PUEBLO PARTS We estimate that the pueblo contained about sixty rooms in the upper habitation level. There appeared to be a similar number of rooms in the lower habitation level, but of course these rooms were buried, and an estimate of the outer limits of the lower building is probably inaccurate. Test trenches, an irrigation ditch cut and a road cut on the perimeters of the ruin gave us a fairly accurate idea of the extent of the later structure. Certainly the upper habitation level was an extensive cluster of rooms. The south end of this building apparently had the rooms grouped on three sides of the kivas that were excavated. Thus the two kivas formed an enclosed courtyard or plaza surrounded by rooms; the ground plan Fig. 29. West end of Kiva II, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, showing firepit, ash pit, platform and ventilator complex; 50 cm. arrow points magnetic north. 49 50 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO is reminiscent of Kinishba and other plaza type pueblos (Cummings, 1940, map). Sequence of Construction. — All of the floors and many of the walls of the rooms classed as upper habitation level rooms (Rooms 1A, 2 A, 3 A, Floor I, 4A, Floor I, 5 A, 6 A, 8A, 9A, Floor I, 10A, Floor I, 12A and Kiva II) were stratigraphically above those of the lower habitation level (see figs. 13 and 30), and it is therefore certain that these upper floors and rooms are of later construction. However, the sequence of con- struction for rooms within each of the major periods is somewhat doubt- ful because it is based on two assumptions: (1) that walls which are bonded together were built at the same time; (2) that walls built with one face of neat-appearing Type I (vertical slab) or Type III (banded masonry) were at first exterior walls with the neat-appearing face exposed and that any abutment which hides the neat-appearing face ends a wall of later construction. (The corollary of this is that walls with faces of crude rubble masonry (Type II) were at first interior walls and the faces were covered with plaster.) Furthermore, additional doubt is cast on the sequence by the difficulty of accurately identifying some bonds in this architecture. For example, in most instances the stones of the two walls at a corner were found to be bonded in only a few courses, or, more frequently, thin, flat pebbles or small thin slabs had been pressed into the wet mortar diagonally across the corner where the walls met, and the joint had been "cemented" together with a covering layer of adobe mortar. This formed a bond (fig. 31) similar to the "diagonal bonding" found at Lowry Ruin (Martin, 1936, pi. 25). Fortunately, abutments (fig. 32) were a more common form of wall juncture and are easier to identify accurately. On the basis of the evidence afforded by the bonding and abutments a possible sequence was worked out. Floor III at the bottom of Room 3A was probably built before any other floor. The pottery on this floor was the earliest in the pueblo and the hearth was partly covered by later walls. We found no other rooms as early, and there is probably an in- terval between this construction and that of most of the rooms in the lower habitation level such as Rooms 6B and 12B, which probably be- longed to a nuclear unit. The next addition was Room 1C and probably the adjacent rooms in a row extending east and west. Another row was then added consisting of Room IB and adjacent rooms. Construction of this second addition was followed by a third row made up of Rooms 3A, Floor II, Rooms 5B, 2B, 4A, Floor II, and 9A, Floor II. After that row had been completed still another was built against it on the south, including Rooms 7A and 10A, Floor II, 15A (before it was remodeled o o O 5 > ~ -2 o « c — , if o o .2 . 3 . CL, C R» Oh — J3 ... bo TD "S t- 1-1 ho _ . O O u C Dh G - O *: 0- - £ U O c c as o o c a ° Q. o O H E .3 ~ Q O.* d u J n — J3 U a V s 51 52 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 32. Abutment to left of meter stick in northeast corner of Room IB and con- tinuing up into center of east wall of Room 1 A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. into Kiva II), and probably Room 14A. With the possible exception of Rooms 7A and 14A the above rooms were part of the lower habita- tion level. There followed a period in which the upper habitation level was con- structed. All the walls, roofs, and central roof posts in the north end of the pueblo and a number of partition walls and posts in the south end were razed to about 150 cm. above the floor, and the compartments ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 53 formed by the walls of the old rooms were filled with relatively clean fill, on which new plastered floors and hearths were built. In the south end of the pueblo new construction was confined largely to alterations; some of the old walls were used and only a few new walls were built on fill. In this area the new wall junctures can tell us nothing about the sequence of the later construction. In the north end of the pueblo the rooms are entirely new; the walls do not coincide with the old walls, and the bond- ing and abutments suggest that the new construction advanced in the opposite direction to that of the earlier structure — from south to north rather than from north to south — Room 1A first, then Rooms 6 A, 8 A, and 12A in that order. Room 15A was probably remodeled into Kiva II at this time by the addition of a platform, a ventilator, a firepit, an ash pit, and a flagstone floor. Room 13A was constructed at the same time as Room 9A, Floor I. Kiva I was probably built at the same time as Room 15A. Rooms 11 A, 14A, and 17A were not completely excavated and cannot be placed in the sequence of either level. USES OF ROOMS The larger rooms, which contained firepits and also almost always held more artifacts, were probably dwelling rooms. The smaller rooms, without firepits and generally containing fewer tools and chipped flint, were probably storerooms. In one of these, Room 10A, there was a quantity of charred foodstuffs on the floor; it was the only room (other than Kiva II) partially paved with flagstones. The kivas were identified as such by their resemblance to historic western pueblo kivas (Mindeleff, 1891, pp. 122-129; Parsons, 1936, fig. 385). The platform, ventilator, ash pit, firepit, sipapu or vault, north wall niche (kachina kiku) complex includes most of those features which are also found in historic kivas. The flagstone paving of the floor in Kiva II, the size of Kiva I, and the grinding stone near the ventilator are other architectural features in which they resemble other kivas and differ from the rooms. The caches of pigments, beads and pipe mold, the painted slabs and their position, and the metate-like stones in position, also suggest the use of these structures as kivas. PICTOGRAPHS (Figures 33-35) A series of pictographs resembling reptiles, animals, men, and a bird had been pecked into the soft sandstone of one of the walls of the pueblo. Another pictograph, by itself in another room (Room 4A, Floor II, but Fig. 33. Panel of pictographs on north wall of Room 3A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Meter stick at left. Fig. 34. Panel of pictographs on north wall of Room 5A, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Same scale as Fig. 33. 54 ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 55 Fig. 35. Geometric pictograph on wall stone from fill in Kiva I, Hooper Ranch Pueblo. on the same wall), is a series of chevrons incised on a single slab, pos- sibly with a bone awl since there are numerous awl-sharpening grooves in this wall. Still another geometric figure on a wall stone was found loose in the fill of Kiva I, but this design was pecked, possibly with a hammerstone. Except for these two geometric designs all the pictographs were on the north side of Room 3 A, Floor II, and Room 5B, where they appear in three courses of stones and present what seems to be a panel planned in advance. They were all pecked in sandstone of approximately the same tan color, and there was no contrast in tint between the pictographs and the surrounding stone at the time of excavation. They range in size from 7.5 to 25 cm. long and are proportionately wide. Many of the figures represented are virtually impossible to identify. There are some that are simply awl-sharpening grooves, and others may be random cavities pecked in the rock. Many symbols cannot be inter- preted, although it seems certain that they were intended to represent specific shapes, because they lack certain essential attributes or combine more than a normal number of features. They may be birds, animals, or possibly reptiles, depending on one's point of view. A number can be classified, as they follow a relatively standard pat- tern (fig. 34). These have a straight groove for a body, with a round dot 56 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO at the upper end for a head; the limbs extend out from the upper and lower extremities of the body at right angles and are bent in another right angle. Some have tails (or genitals?) between their lower limbs. Two appear to have arrows pointing at their feet. Similar representa- tions have been identified by the Hopi for Colton (1946b, figs. 2 and 4) and for Fewkes (1897, pi. 4, fig. 104) as lizards or reptiles, whereas M. Stevenson (1904, pi. 1c) was told by the Zuni that this represents a "primitive Zuni before amputation of tail." A few others conform to patterns with a possibly greater degree of probability. There are a snake, a bison, and a bird. These have certain features which identify them. Similar symbols have been termed totemic signatures by Fewkes (1897) and Colton (1946b) for the Hopi and by Stevenson (1904) for the Zuni and it is quite possible that these figures represent something of this kind. Other possibilities, although less likely, are (1) that they were simply decorative; (2) that they record an event or series of events in the man- ner of Plains Indian pictographs; (3) that they were regarded as having a magical or ritual significance. Aside from their meaning to the former occupants their definite asso- ciation with a particular culture seems worth mentioning. At least two styles and two processes of making them are represented, and there is the possibility that they were made by another group and quarried ready- made. Nevertheless it is clear that this group of pictographs had meaning to this particular culture. GENERAL COMMENTS The Hooper Ranch Pueblo contained perhaps sixty rooms and three kivas that were occupied at one time. The building was probably one story high. Many of the rooms were used as dwelling rooms (eleven large rooms with firepits were excavated), but some of the smaller ones were probably used for storage. During one period in its history most of the pueblo had been rebuilt on top of the filled-in rooms of an earlier period. In some of these earlier rooms, tools, pottery vessels, and other artifacts had been left intact on the floors around the firepits. The two kivas appear to be closely related to other rectangular kivas of this general time level, and they also are remotely related to kivas in general in that they fulfill Smiley's (1952, pp. 22-23) definition of a kiva, since they possess "a ventilator, a firepit, a hatchway over the firepit, and one or more of the following features: deflector, ash pit, sipapu, bench, platform, recess, wall niche, loom anchor, and either subterra- nean or ground level placement." In addition to the essential features ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 57 such as a ventilator, a firepit and probably a hatchway over the firepit, the two kivas at the Hooper Ranch have ash pits, platforms and subter- ranean placement with reference to the filled-in rooms of the lower habi- tation level. In Kiva I there are also a wall niche and a vault which may have functioned as a sipapu. In Kiva II there are two notches in the edges of the flagstones near the firepit (one was located on the north, the other on the east), but it is uncertain whether these were loom anchor holes, or places for the insertion of interlocking stones to keep the flag- stones from shifting, or whether one of them functioned as a sipapu. The two kivas appear to be closely related to other rectangular kivas in this area because of the similarity in a number of features. The vault in Kiva I seems to have some analogy to the groove on the west of the hearth area in the Great Kiva at Mineral Creek Site (see p. 26) or the similar feature in Kiva B at Kiatuthlanna (Roberts, 1931, p. 98). The vaults are long, narrow trench-like depressions and are situated athwart the ventilator-hearth axis of the kivas on the opposite side of the hearth from the ventilator (or lateral entrance). Vaults of similar shape and in a similar position occurred in the kivas excavated by Smiley (1952, pp. 39, 47) at Point of Pines and they are also found in historic kivas such as the chief kiva at Shipaulovi (Mindeleff, 1891, fig. 22, p. 122). The position of the painted stones found in the floor to the east of the firepit and the vault in Kiva I at the Hooper Ranch Pueblo are also sug- gestive of the position of some of the painted stones found in the Great Kiva at Higgins Flat Pueblo (Martin, Rinaldo and Barter, 1957, p. 58). These painted stones are also suggestive of the "tiles" which historic Hopi use on their altars (Smith, 1952b, p. 262), but this relationship is only very general. The pattern of flagstones in Kiva II appears to be something like that in certain historic Hopi kivas such as the low kiva at Shipaulovi (Parsons, 1936, p. 722). It is less like that of the flagstones in Kiva II at Table Rock Pueblo (Martin and Rinaldo, 1960b, fig. 79) or that in the rectan- gular kiva at Hawikuh (Hodge, 1939, fig. 2) in that the flagstones are not as uniformly rectangular in shape and the layout is asymmetrical. There is a possible parallel between all four patterns in that the largest flagstone in Kiva II at the Hooper Ranch is placed in the center of the floor next to the east wall where an altar would be placed — the front of the kiva, in Smith's terminology (1952b, p. 6). This unusually large flagstone seems analogous to the long narrow slab in front of the kachina niche in Kiva II at Table Rock Pueblo and a similar long narrow flagstone in the north end of the kiva at Hawikuh. 58 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO The grinding stones found near the firepits and ventilators in both kivas at the Hooper Ranch Pueblo seem to have their analogues in grind- ing stones found in a similar position in some of the Point of Pines kivas (Smiley, 1952, pp. 25, 36, 47), and at Pinedale (Haury and Hargrave, 1931, p. 51). An Inquiry Concerning Vaults, Sipapus and Grooves In the Mogollon area many of the earlier pithouses which have been called Great Kivas contain grooves in the floor. These grooves are trenches in a quadrangular arrangement so located as to appear to have some symbolic relation to the hearth. Their actual function has not been determined but it has been suggested theoretically that they contained some sort of foot drum (Wheat, 1954, p. 73). The grooves appear in the following houses which have been termed "kivas" or "ceremonial rooms" : Pithouse A at the SU Site (Martin and Rinaldo, 1940, Map 4); House 5 at the Bluff Site (Haury and Sayles, 1947, fig. 5); Pithouses 9 and 19 at Crooked Ridge Village (Wheat, 1954, figs. 24, 25); Pithouse K at Turkey Foot Ridge (Martin and Rinaldo, 1950a, fig. 101); and at the Bear Ruin Kiva (Haury, 1940, fig. 19). On a later horizon the grooves appear in the earlier Great Kivas at the Sawmill Site (Bluhm, 1957, fig. 3) and at the Higgins Flat Pueblo (Martin, Rinaldo and Barter, 1957, fig. 2), and in a still later horizon in the upper structures at both these kivas. Pithouse A at the SU Site has a series of grooves encircling the floor. House 5 at the Bluff Site has a continuous groove in the bedrock en- circling the perimeter of the floor in a similar manner. The five grooves in Pithouse A have the shape of a half log and may have contained hollow logs to be used as foot drums or solid logs for the bases of roof supports. The grooves in both houses are set out from the wall a very short distance and appear to outline an area of the floor space; but for the most part there is no room to stand between the groove and the wall so it does not seem likely that they were used in ceremonies to separate participants from spectators. Pithouses 9 and 19 at Crooked Ridge Village and Pithouse K at Turkey Foot Ridge illustrate the next stage in the developmental sequence (although Pithouse K was of later construction). In these houses a cen- tral area of the floor surrounding the hearth area is set off by grooves which form a quadrangle. Actual remnants of logs were found in the grooves in Pithouse K. They enclose an area much smaller than that in the earlier houses and may have served either as a visual boundary be- tween the surrounding space and the hearth area or as the basal support for a physical barrier which performed a similar function. Again, the logs could have been hollow and served as foot drums. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 59 Up to this point the grooves always seem to have formed a boundary around an area, although in three out of the five houses there have been gaps in the boundary. Then, there are indications of a shift in emphasis. The Bear Ruin Kiva, for example, has a long groove set athwart the axis between the southeastern recess and the hearth, at the far side of the hearth. Haury has suggested that this groove and the associated notches on its periphery were part of a loom anchor (Haury, 1940, p. 47). This may have been so, but the position of this groove is similar to that of the sipapu vaults in Kiva B at Kiatuthlanna, at Point of Pines (e.g., Kiva 1, Ariz. W. 10: 48; Smiley, 1952, p. 39), and in some historic Hopi kivas (Mindeleff, 1891, fig. 22) (see p. 57), even though there is another de- pression beyond this which Haury designates as possibly a sipapu. The next stage in the development is represented by the Sawmill Site Great Kiva and to a lesser extent by the Great Kiva at Higgins Flat Pueblo. In both of these kivas the hearth area is bounded on opposite sides by grooves and in addition in the Sawmill Site by deeper pits that Bluhm has conjectured may have been resonators (Bluhm, 1957, p. 27). There appears to be a distinct resemblance between the placement of these grooves and the central post of the hearth area and the quadrangular arrangement in relation to the hearth noted in the kivas at Turkey Foot Ridge and Crooked Ridge Village. At Higgins Flat Pueblo, however, the hearth area is bounded by grooves only on the north and south and there was a large round depression on the west beyond the hearth area. The Great Kiva at Mineral Creek Site (see pp. 23-29) has a hearth area similar to that in the Great Kiva at the Sawmill Site in that both hearths are bounded by vaults and grooves, but in the former instance the vaults are lined with stone slabs. These vaults appear to have parallels in the masonry vaults situated between the pillars in Anasazi Great Kivas (see p. 29); possibly both may have been used as "resonators." The west vault at Mineral Creek Site seems to provide a link between the vault or trench situated to the north or west of the hearth area in the earlier lesser kivas and the vault of the foot drum type found in Kiva I at the Hooper Ranch, in the kivas at Point of Pines (Smiley, 1952, pp. 39, 47), and in some of the historic Hopi kivas. At the same time the rela- tively narrow area between the grooves and the walls in most of the earlier Mogollon Great Kivas suggests the narrow bench which is found on three sides of some historic Hopi kivas, especially so if the groove-to-wall area is compared with the wider area of the ramp entryway and the bench to the more spacious southern platform. Thus the Great Kiva at Mineral Creek provides a link in the development of lesser and Great Kivas in the Mogollon area. 60 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO SUMMARY OF ARCHITECTURE OF BOTH PUEBLOS Six dwelling rooms and a Great Kiva were excavated at Mineral Creek Site on the west bank of Mineral Creek two miles east of Vernon, Arizona. The secular rooms were all roughly rectangular in shape with walls of rather crude, composite masonry. There were no lateral door- ways and entrance was possibly through a hatchway in the roof. The interior walls were plastered. The rooms had either a central firepit of general oval shape or a central posthole which probably once contained the secondary vertical support for the main roof beam. One room con- tained a ventilator in the partition wall, and centered and in line with the ventilator opening were a stone-rimmed firepit and three bins with bottoms and walls of stone slabs. The Great Kiva was generally round in shape with walls of native gravelly earth covered with a coating of mixed adobe and sand. A short, steep, lateral entryway was located near the center of the east side. Four posts symmetrically placed served as the main supports for the roof. Long, narrow, trench-like vaults lined with stone slabs were placed be- tween the holes for these posts on the north, south, and west sides of a central hearth area and between the postholes. A short groove connected the north and south vaults to the northeast and southeast postholes. In the arrangement of the primary postholes, the vaults, and the grooves there appear to be certain analogies to the disposition of similar features in other Great Kivas in both the Mogollon and the Anasazi areas. Twenty-five secular rooms and two kivas were excavated at the Hooper Ranch Pueblo, which lies on the east bank of the Little Colorado River approximately four miles north of Springerville, Arizona. This pueblo was of roughly rectangular shape with the three kivas (one not excavated) situated on the south end and disposed in a row trending north and south. The two smaller excavated kivas lay between secular(?) rooms on the east and west. Both the ceremonial and the secular rooms were rectangular in shape. The secular rooms and one of the kivas contained about nine square meters of floor space on the average. The other excavated kiva was much larger. Many smaller secular rooms were also excavated. The larger rooms were usually furnished with rectangular stone-slab-lined firepits. Walls were generally of three types of masonry: (1) with a facing of slabs set on edge; (2) constructed throughout of a rubble consisting of slabs and chunks laid up in abundant mortar; (3) faced with banded masonry built up of a series of large long slabs laid in courses alternating with a larger number of courses of thin slabs. Most of the rooms were plastered, but the walls ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO 61 were not painted. One long wall contained several panels of pictographs, depicting mostly natural forms, inscribed and pecked in the masonry. Two habitation levels were uncovered. The walls of the upper habita- tion level were based on the filled-in lower portions of the earlier rooms in such a way that the walls of the two levels did not coincide in most in- stances. The walls of the rooms in the lower habitation level were pierced by rectangular doorways and contained niches. A few of the rooms in the upper level were furnished with bins and ventilators. No lateral doorways were found in the rooms of the upper habitation level, and they must have been entered through hatchways in the roofs. The evidence for roof construction consisted of decayed roof members found in place and in impressions on adobe. This indicated that one or more large beams crossed the center of the room and had their ends resting in the masonry; in the lower habitation level they rested also on a post placed near the center of the room. Successive layers of poles, splints, and adobe were supported by the main beams. The smaller rooms contained charred corn and other vegetable re- mains and miscellaneous stone and bone artifacts, but there were no fur- nishings such as firepits or ventilators and the rooms were probably storerooms. The ceremonial rooms were characterized by such typical features of late rectangular kivas as platforms, flagstone floors, and kachina niches. One of the kivas had a foot-drum type of sipapu. A conjectural develop- ment may be traced between these vaults and certain grooves and vaults in early Mogollon Great Kivas. IIL Artifacts from Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo 1 More than 1200 stone, bone, shell, and minor baked clay artifacts were recovered from the Hooper Ranch Pueblo and Mineral Creek Site. More than a thousand of these objects were excavated at the Hooper Ranch, and the remainder came from Mineral Creek Site. As in most other South- western sites, stone objects outnumbered those of other materials. Al- though there are some differences between the assemblages from the two sites, the similarity is remarkable considering the more than twenty miles of rough terrain that separate the two sites, and the interval of many years between the time when each was occupied. Most of the artifacts found at the Hooper Ranch have their counterparts in the collection from Min- eral Creek Site but in smaller numbers. For this reason the two collections will be discussed together. Some of the main interests in the study of the artifacts were to deter- mine (1) how they were made, (2) how they were used, (3) which ones were objects of trade, (4) the amount of help they would give in placing the sites in a specific cultural tradition and in an interval of time within this tradition. GROUND AND PECKED STONE ARTIFACTS A large proportion of the stone artifacts from the two sites had been shaped to some extent by grinding and pecking. These objects show the characteristic scratches which indicate that they were ground on an abrasive gritty surface, and the small pits where they were struck with a pecking stone. All of the tools sometimes termed handstones, such as manos, rubbing stones and pestles, had been shaped in this way, as well as the metates, lapstones and mortars. Furthermore, many of the manos were thus modified not only on their working surfaces but on their ends, edges, and other surfaces as well. In general, although they are more carefully shaped than the objects from the earlier Site 30, excavated in 1957, the artifacts from the Hooper 1 A tabulation of dimensions, materials, and proveniences for specific artifacts has been given by Martin, Rinaldo, and Longacre (1960). 62 ARTIFACTS 63 Ranch are less carefully shaped than those from the Table Rock Site, where the manos, for example, are more consistently shaped all over and have square corners and straight edges. A number of symmetrical stone slabs of mano shape and size were found. Their surfaces did not show the usual marks of use and they were termed mano blanks. The edges of some had been shaped by spalling, others by grinding and pecking. Their broad surfaces are uneven and follow the natural cleavage planes of the bedrock or boulder from which they were split. Some of the rubbing stones, pestles and polishing stones are natural pebbles modified only on their used surfaces. Hammerstones, abrading stones, old axes and mauls were probably used to shape artifacts of stone. POLISHED STONE ARTIFACTS A few of the categories of artifacts such as axes, arrow-shaft tools, and ornaments, have polished surfaces which are smooth and reflect light. With the exception of some beads, a pendant and an arrow-shaft tool, all of the polished stone objects are from the Hooper Ranch Pueblo. The pol- ished surfaces are few. They include the blades of about half of the axes, and the grooves of one of the axes, one of the mauls, and all of the arrow- shaft tools. Some other surfaces on about half of the arrow-shaft tools had also been polished. In general, polished surfaces are less common in the Hooper Ranch Pueblo artifacts than they are on the Table Rock Pueblo artifacts. It was not a common technique for working stone at either site. At the Hooper Ranch Pueblo there were numerous grooved slabs of fine-grained sandstone which appeared to have been used for polishing and sharpening axe blades. CHIPPED STONE ARTIFACTS The majority of the chipped stone tools were small objects made from flakes. Many were merely flakes which had been sharpened for use but there is a continuous gradation between such utilized flakes and blades with secondary chipping on all their major surfaces. There is also a grada- tion from crude percussion-flaked implements such as the choppers into the more finely chipped scrapers. Although the more crudely shaped chipped tools are in the majority, a large number of small, thin, delicately flaked projectile points were recovered. Hammerstones and flakers of bone and antler such as were found in some of the rooms were probably used as chipping tools. 64 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO On the whole this was not as popular a technique for shaping stone as grinding and pecking. There are more ground and pecked artifacts than chipped stone artifacts from the Hooper Ranch Site. However, there are more chipped stone artifacts from the Mineral Creek Site. SHELL OBJECTS A number of shell objects were found but they are not especially elaborate. The principal techniques used in working shell were cutting, sawing, grinding, polishing, and drilling. Cutting and sawing are in- dicated by minute parallel scratches and notches on some surfaces. Polish- ing probably produced the lustrous surfaces and drilling made the con- ical holes. Beads and bracelet fragments were the objects most frequently re- covered. The beads were made by cutting or grinding off the spire of the olivella shell, and the bracelets were made by cutting out the centers of larger bivalve shells and grinding the thin remaining sections smooth. Two incised pendants were found. These have simple straight grooves incised in them, probably for decoration. No carved forms were found. Strangely enough almost nothing was made from the thin, native fresh- water clam shell, although these were found in almost every room. The ornaments were made from shells which were traded in. BONE OBJECTS Tools and other objects of bone were especially numerous at the Hooper Ranch Site, although the number of forms in which bone was used is not much greater than at other contemporary sites. Awls were so numerous that weaving and allied occupations must have been especially important at the Hooper Ranch Pueblo. There are few elaborately worked forms, and relatively few that have been polished and worked all over. The usual treatment of the bone after it had been split or splintered was to make it into a serviceable implement by paring it to a point and grinding and polishing it down farther, probably on an abra- sive stone. Awls with the head of the bone intact, those on which the head of the bone has been split in two, and splinter awls are the dominant types. There appears to have been a consistent effort to retain the end of the awl opposite the point as a sort of handle. Either the head was left intact, or nearly so, and was used as a knob-like handle, or it was blunted and rounded off so that it was a comfortable place to grasp. Also, the shaft of ARTIFACTS 65 the bone was usually ground off so that there were no sharp edges left from the process of splitting. Grooves which tapered at each end were found in the sandstone walls of the pueblo, and these are thought to be awl-sharpening grooves. A few portable grooved abrading stones were found which may have served the purpose. BAKED CLAY ARTIFACTS Aside from the pottery vessels (described in chapter IV), the baked clay artifacts consist of worked sherds (fig. 36), an animal effigy, and a pipe. The worked sherds were probably shaped by rubbing the edge of one pottery fragment against another until the desired outline was secured and the fragment was abraded smooth. The animal effigy was modeled in a crude fashion while the clay was still plastic and wet. The legs appear to have been drawn out of the original lump, not attached. The body is smoothed but not polished or slipped. The pipe was probably made in a mold, because in shape it conforms to the general contour of two stone objects (fig. 37) containing subconical cavities roughly the shape of the pipe. We reason that a lump of wet and plastic clay was pressed into the mold, a bowl hollow pressed in one end and a stick thrust through at the "stem" end. Then the pipe was left to dry and shrink so that it would drop out of the mold. When it had dried it was polished and slipped with a fine white slip; then a red brown decoration was added with paint probably made of an iron pigment. THE USES OF ARTIFACTS Tools Used for Grinding Manos, metates, rubbing stones, mortars, pestles and some of the hammerstones were probably used for grinding purposes — primarily for milling corn and seeds and secondarily for grinding paints. Rectangular manos (fig. 38) with flat or beveled grinding surfaces, probably used on a flat or slab-type metate, were the most common. We recovered relatively fewer manos with convex grinding surfaces for use on a trough-type metate. About one-fourth of the collection had beveled grinding surfaces. Those from the Hooper Ranch Pueblo were on the average thinner than those from Mineral Creek Site. A number of the thicker specimens were pitted on the top surface or grooved on the edges in order to furnish a grip. About ten manos (fig. 39) had red, green, or black pigment on one of their broad surfaces. On some of these objects Fig. 36. Worked potsherds, miniature ladle fragment, and animal effigy fragment. Length of lower left specimen, 9.1 cm. 66 ARTIFACTS 67 the pigment was limited to a small smudge; on others it covered the entire surface and seems to indicate that they were used for grinding paint. The smooth-worn or striated surfaces of the rubbing stones (fig. 40) are enough like those of the manos to suggest that they were used as small Fig. 37. Pipe mold and grinding stones. Length of lower right specimen, 13.3 cm. manos. They were differentiated from the one-hand manos simply on the basis of size. Some pestles (fig. 41) of the multifaced type also appear to have been used as manos. These implements have some smooth facets which appear to have been used for grinding by abrasion, and of course they have pitted, battered ends which have been used for pounding. The hammerstones (fig. 42) were probably tools with multiple uses. They are usually made of dense, flinty rocks, and range in shape from Fig. 38. Manos, miscellaneous types. Length of lower right specimen, 20.1 cm. 68 Fig. 39. Painted manos and an early type of mano (lower right specimen; length, 12.7 cm.). 70 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 40. Rubbing stones. Length of lower left specimen, 8.9 cm. angular fist-sized stones to smoother round pebbles from which most of the corners have been removed. These implements were probably used as pecking stones to roughen the grinding surfaces of the manos and metates, and as pestles for pulverizing material in mortars and for knocking flakes off cores in the process of percussion-chipping. Most of the metate specimens from the Hooper Ranch Pueblo were fragments. More than half of these were from flat (fig. 43, right) or slab type metates, four were definitely from trough type metates, and two were from shallow basin type metates (fig. 43, left). The remainder — about a dozen specimens — were too fragmentary to classify accurately but most of them appear to come from metates with a shallow grinding surface. The metates from Mineral Creek Site were all of the type with trough open at both ends. A number of small metate-like grinding stones (fig. 44) were found at the Hooper Ranch Pueblo. Most of these are shaped liked miniature metates and may have been used as toy metates. Others have more than one grinding surface — two or three parallel troughs containing pigment in two instances — and these were probably used for grinding paints. The small metate-like grinding stones grade into a crude form of paint palette (fig. 45). These are simple, small, rectangular or circular slabs of ARTIFACTS 71 I Fig. 41. Abrading stones (upper) and pestles (lower) specimen, 10.5 cm. Length of lower left stone with smudges of paint on one or two broad surfaces. Sometimes the surfaces bearing paint are smooth. Red (hematite), green and blue (malachite, azurite, turquoise), yellow (limonite), white (kaolin?) and black pigments were used. Most of the lumps of hematite and a few of the malachite and limonite samples were faceted, as if the raw pigment had been rubbed directly on the grinding stone or palette; that is, it had not been broken off and pulverized. In general the mortars are of two types: (1) medium-sized slabs with shallow cavities a few centimeters in diameter in the middle or with one on opposite surfaces; (2) thicker stone vessels with larger, deeper, cup-like depressions in one face (figs. 46, 47). The former may have been used as nutting stones as well as mortars. There were no traces of paint in their walnut-sized cavities, and walnuts were plentiful in the rooms where they occurred. At least some of the latter (bowls) have traces of pigment in their cup-like depressions and were almost certainly used for grinding paint. 72 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO ^ Fig. 42. Hammerstones (right), handstones (middle), mortar and celt (left). Length of lower left specimen, 11.7 cm. Tools Used for Pounding and Chopping The mauls, axes, and choppers were probably used for working up wood and possibly for shaping some of the softer rocks. Only one of the axes (fig. 48) has a sharp blade; the other ten have been broken or blunted by use on some hard rock. Most of the mauls (fig. 49) have flat or blunt faces and thick ends which appear to have been designed for pounding and which in some examples are battered from use on a harder rock. Apparently they had been used for breaking up wood and rock. None of the mauls had smooth-faceted grinding surfaces and they do not appear to have been utilized as manos, but they may have been used as pestles. One of them is very symmetrical and rectangular in shape, like an abrad- ing stone, and has only a very shallow groove. The choppers (figs. 50 and 51) show little evidence of wear. One or more surfaces were percussion-flaked to form a sharp cutting edge, and in addition there was some secondary chipping which made a keener edge. Part of the original, smooth surface of the stone was left intact for a grip. These tools probably were used for chopping wood and breaking up bones. This postulated use rests on evidence found at Tularosa Cave ARTIFACTS 73 Fig. 43. Metate (right) with flat grinding surface; length, 48.8 cm. basin-shaped grinding surface; length, 51.2 cm. Metate with (Martin et al., 1952, p. 107), where choppers had bits of tissue adhering to their edges. Openings Closed with Worked Slabs The large rectangular and circular worked slabs (fig. 52, left) were probably used as "doors" for closing hatchways, lateral doorways and ventilator openings. Although none were found in place at the Hooper Ranch Pueblo or Mineral Creek Site they are so much like those from Foote Canyon Pueblo (Rinaldo, 1959, pp. 173, 244) and Valley View Pueblo (Martin, Rinaldo and Barter, 1957, p. 58), which were found in ventilator openings, that there seems little doubt that these slabs served a similar purpose. None of them had the burned surfaces which would indicate their use as piki slabs. A few ring slabs (fig. 52, right) and fragments thereof were recov- ered. Two of these were in place — one in the mouth of the ventilator tunnel in Kiva II, Hooper Ranch Pueblo, and another in the niche at the north end of Kiva I (kachina kihu?). Both slabs are relatively small. The one in Kiva II was more nearly the shape of a horseshoe, and that in the niche had quite a small hole. Larger ring slabs may have been used to frame hatchway openings (Mindeleff, 1891, pp. 192-194, pi. C). 74 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Tools Used for Abrasion Some thick, generally oblong objects (fig. 41) made of pumice or light vesicular basalt resemble small manos or rubbing stones but they lack the smooth or striated grinding surfaces usually found on manos and are too light in weight to make efficient crushing tools. They range from quite symmetrical rectangular objects with square corners and fiat surfaces to specimens with more rounded contours. Similar objects were recovered at Los Muertos, and, following Haury's theory (1945, p. 129, pi. 40), we conjecture that the rough surfaces of these stones made them useful abrad- ing tools. Other small oblong tools made of gritty stone have a single groove (fig. 53) in the approximate center of a flat upper surface running parallel to the long axis. Most of them have grooves of uniform width and depth from end to end and are usually designated shaft smoothers. A few have wide, shallow grooves of irregular depth, and one has a narrow shallow groove tapering to a point at either end. These tools may have been used in shaping such wooden objects as arrow foreshafts, spindles, or prayer sticks (Dorsey and Voth, 1902, p. 226). Chipped Stone Tools Used for Cutting and Piercing Simple sharpened flake tools such as knives, scrapers (figs. 54, 55) and saws were much more numerous than artifacts such as projectile points, blades and drills with secondary chipping on all their surfaces. Although all the flake knives (fig. 56) have secondary chipping along one or more edges to sharpen them, a great many also have along these same edges some very minute chipping that probably resulted from use. The only material we recovered which may have been worked with these knives is bone. Some of the bones exhibit cutting marks which appear to have been made with this kind of flake knife. Some of the worked sherds and stone pendants have biconical holes which appear to have been made with a stone drill. However, most of the small stone and shell beads have very small holes of uniform diameter that must have been made with a smaller object. The majority of the projectile points (fig. 57) are small to medium in size (2.3 to 4.0 cm. long) and must have been used as arrow heads. The small triangular specimens are similar to mounted examples in various collections (Cosgrove, 1947, p. 63, figs. 76, 131; Hough, 1914, pp. 64-65). Ornaments The objects (figs. 58, 59) with which the people adorned themselves were bead necklaces, bracelets, and pendants. Although a fairly large Fig. 44. Small metate-like grinding stones. Length of upper specimen, 29.7 cm. 75 Fig. 45. Painted slabs. Length of lower left specimen, 18.3 cm. 76 Fig. 46. Mortars and stone bowls. Diameter of lower right specimen, 11.1 cm. 77 78 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 47. Large mortar. Length, 1 9.0 cm. number of such objects was found, there was little direct evidence of their use. One burial at Mineral Creek Site had a necklace of black (jet) and white (shell) disc beads coiled several times around his neck, collar fashion. A series of eighteen or twenty black beads alternated with one or two white ones. A rectangular turquoise pendant was part of this neck- lace. The use of shell bracelets (fig. 60) is known from their positions on the forearms of numerous burials throughout the Southwest (Cosgrove and Cosgrove, 1932, pp. 65-66; Haury, 1940, p. 117; Roberts, 1931, p. 130; Martin and Rinaldo, 1940, pp. 68, 88). Ordinarily they occur in multiple numbers on the lower left arm and it has been suggested that they served as bowguards. However, in some instances only one or two were worn and in other instances as many as ten on each arm, so this was probably not the primary purpose. Fig. 48. Axes. Length of lower right specimen, 11.0 cm. 79 80 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 49. Mauls. Length of lower right specimen, 11.7 cm. Pendants are of several forms and materials. The only feature all of them have is that they are perforated — usually near one end for suspen- sion. They are made of turquoise, shell and bone. Most of the turquoise and bone specimens approach a rectangular form. The shell objects are of whole shell (olivella, small bivalves, etc.), the rims or umbo of Glycymeris, and the thick beak portion of an unknown shell. Some of these pendants were used as parts of necklaces (as found at Mineral Creek); others may have been sewn on clothing or bandoleers (although there is no archaeological evidence of this, the historic Pueblo Indians have used them in this way; Stephen, 1936, p. 751); or they may have been worn as ear bobs. A fourth possible use is a religious one. Although these objects were all found in trash others much like them Fig. 50. Small choppers, biface type at bottom, uniface at top. Length of upper right specimen, 9.8 cm. Fig. 51. Large choppers. Length of upper right specimen, 14.3 cm. 81 82 MINERAL CREEK SITE AND HOOPER RANCH PUEBLO Fig. 52. Notched stone slab (left); length, 54.0 cm. Stone ring slab; length, 39.2 cm. have been found in caches; for example, a pendant was found in the north niche, Kiva II, Table Rock Pueblo (Martin and Rinaldo, 1960b, p. 270). The bone ring fragments (fig. 61) are of small diameter. These are probably finger rings as they are about that size, and they usually have been designated in this way. However, I know of no instance in the Southwest where they have been found in this position on a burial. Tools Used for Weaving A large number of bone awls (fig. 62) was recovered. Moreover, the collection is unusually varied in material, in the degree of finish or work- manship, and in the shapes of the tips. Whereas the awls from the earlier sites were made from the bones of two or three species of animals and all from limb bones, these were made from the bones of several species and not merely from limb bones, but also from ribs and scapulae. Fur- thermore, they vary, through a fine series of gradations, from simple ulna awls which have been only ground down and sharpened, to delicate pin- like objects which have been entirely modified in forms shaped all over. Furthermore, the tips were shaped in an extraordinary number of ways — some shouldered, some round in cross-section, some flat on both sides, some with thin and fine points, others thick and almost blunt. It seems clear from this amount of variation that the awls were used in a number of different ways, and the quantity found seems to suggest that weaving was important. They exhibit some marks of use. Some have shallow grooves across the tips — the kind of wear which would result from pressing them against the warp threads. Others are scratched in a close spiral as if they had been used to make holes in some hard material, and a few are blunted as if they had been used for flakers. Fig. 53. Arrow-shaft abraders and grooved stones. Length of lower right speci- men, 9.8 cm. 83 *5&