PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION CONTENTS, VOLUME 78 (For detailed index, see Bulletin 663, page 673} Bulletin 659, September-October 1976 Page Tie Renewals and Costs (Advance Report of Committee 3 — Ties and Wood Preservation) 1 Metric Planning for Track Scales (Advance Report of Committee 34 — Scales) 13 On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 19 Economics of Systems for Control of Train Operation (Advance Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations) .... 45 Evaluation of Japanese Rail Received from the Norfolk & Western Railway Company (Advance Report of Committee 4 — Rail) 59 Bulletin 660, November-December 1976 (Part 1) Manual Recommendations 75-139 Bulletin 660, November-December 1976 (Part 2 — Reporls of Committees) Highways (9) 235 Yards and Tenninals (14) 253 Bulletin 661, January-February 1977 (Reports of Committees) Concrete Structures and Foundations (8) 273 Timber Structures (7) 321 Roadway and Ballast (1) 325 Ties and Wood Preservation (3) 341 Engineering Records and Property Accounting (11) 345 Maintenance of Way \Vork Equipment (27) 355 Clearances (28) 365 Steel Structiu-es (15) 369 Buildings (6) 371 Environmental Engineering (13) 389 Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations (16) 425 Rail (4) 431 Systems Engineering (32) 475 Scales (34) 477 Bulletin 663, June-July 1977 (Technical Conference Report) President's Address 493 Annual Luncheon Address 495 Special Features 501 Installation of Officers — Adjournment 579 AAR Engineering Division Session 585 Report of Executive Director 637 Report of Treasurer 647 AREA Constitution 653 Advance Committee Report — Statistical Data for Coupled-in-Motion Scales (Committee 34 — Scales) 669 RECEIVED NOV 2 9 American Railway ,3^^,, Engineering Association— Bulletin Bulletin 659 September-October 1976 Proceedings Volume 78* CONTENTS Tie Renewals and Costs (Advance Report of Committee 3 — Ties and Wood Preservation) 1 Metric Planning for Track Scales (Advance Report of Com- mittee 34 — Scales) 13 On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 19 Economics of Systems for Control of Train Operation (Ad- vance Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations) 45 Evaluation of Japanese Rail Received from the Norfolk & Western Railway Company (Advance Report of Com- mittee 4 — Rail) 59 Directory — Consulting Engineers 74-1 • Proceedings October 1976; 660 Volume 78 (1977) will consist of AREA Bulletins 659, September- >, November-December 1976; 661, Januar>-February 1977- and 663, »-^CM)Der J.»o en lO CM NO O NO o o en oo NO oo r^ a: ^ in -3- CM CM St on V CS •r^ U ■U (U 3 r^ _. r^ _( cs NO 00 lO ON o r~. o en ON CNi > cu cs ^ r^ -O ^ in ON o ON <}■ 00 C3N en en c c a. g "^ v£) in r^ en CN ON C7N r^ 00 Na- m nO C7N g 3 0) CU T 0) ^ o CN CT. in ^ ^ ^ n CM 0) O iJ cs* -J CN — ' -a- cm' en o O- r^ nD ^ O ON -J 4-1 ON lO ^ ij -1 nO ^ a. J3 -O CD T3 O Q) U nO in o cjN o 00 ON . H u ^ o T3 M r^ M J3| 01 CO CO _, 00 00 o u u 3 < o 00 o o o in 2 o> N O JO CO C 1-1 c o ■-1 01 C ti OS C eu .5 S -4 Ul o 01 -1 O U JJ •o 3 -H cJ'^ M X 1-1 CO c O Ji U CO >H O U 3 O c c vs w o o t. o o 4J H ,^ -H u 41 •H z jj j: 01 CO -O O v8 U O £ en J.! 1— CO 1-1 13 01 -O •H M C O O CO c .rf NM O CO 3 -1 01 iJ u OS O J u o e ofl eO X O -H 01 4J H JJ wS ti M H O -H C < lO X cu of 01 OJ 2 > ^ ~iS H -1 ■H M CO IH 01 ^ 1^ O a a o o u. .3 u 'H C CO CO -1 -1 O 01 --> z " M E M g c ■H eo CO a 00 CO -rt -1 - as C < -H O 0) ■O u u CO e) 3 O O C M O u 00 CO CO iJ iJ CO H ti C '-c B CO C C C 01 •H f^ 4J AJ OC J! C CO CO 01 o CO 01 01 X <: < < (O lO CO PQ u o u u O Q Q Q [t] ^ u Tie Renewals and Costs f-l o <-^ r^ nD o » r^ 00 in nO r^ in Ov -O 00 o ^ -a- r~ in -H r-. eg O- NO ^ O ON -1 ON 00 fn o 5 NO O ON -a- tn in e^ .-1 vo - CJN 00 en o o ON -i r>. O ON nO en n ^ d 00 en o CM d ei J J d ^ d d d ON o CJN O -1 o O ^ ^ t-i ^ ^ ^ f-i *"* ■"* '^ ^D ON O 00 I^ NO NO in m NO in 00 o NO NO o o O O eg — • vO ^ C J3 01 rH M C t i) 3 o ^ ■H -0| (0 o u n U Ji XI 73 a H pj Vg n w c O 01 M fl - C U o 10 lO e < c C 4) -H C 4-1 ►J T3 eo c M u >^ z -u OJ C 3 E >, 00 aj r-< u OS 01 !3 Ul 10 T-I ^ 01 H u c l^ eO (0 O j: 3 J! o -1 -o .-. n 3 n ■rt pL, t< en 3 T) O >N u lU = H -1 c 4J H r-H •o j= in 1-1 U OJ u to >, 3 Jii 3 (11 to c i °' '^ !0 00 -S 18 Q -a 0) u> OS o O Ui 0) > -I eo 01 W -o c Ml O C C to m -rf e OJ m a c u J= 0) 10 OJ c ■-< •H 00 c c c ij -o j: 4J 11 c ^ iJ 4J u •^ 15 -1 J= c CO c u. c C iJ eo u !0 o H o o 3 10 3 W o OJ o fl •H O O OJ .H J CO CO 3 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association « 01 o ^ 3 ao S in r-i CT^ 00 c^ o 00 in r^ O H a^ rn \c c^ m 00 cn rg >c CM -a- o O CN ON en 00 r^ en en o O CTN ta d O dl -rf vo vo . D- -o o o in ctn ^ vo o (TNl 00 o C^ ON O ON ^ r^ o o r^ CN c O N H u J3 — 1 CO l~^ CN CM •-* O < u O <» l>J CTN O m CN O ON OO O o en " O d 00 t, i^ o d o CO CO -rl U 00 .^ -a ro ^ Fl^ u d 3 4-1 d NM d d ■rH -^ XJ o a: d ti CO .^ CO (u (li tn 4J -O 3 d u O CO u eu N-' S -H d O, -r^ CO ^ .2 d u CO T) d CO • d d M ^1 d M x: >« X u 4J d d .3 H QJ U CO TJ Ji en d o 0) 3 00 ^ OJ d i« > Q) J= W JJ H CO ■ ■ a j: CO £ Mj d 3 H ^ U ^ - l-H ^1 CO 3 .^ O CO CO b. CO u 3 o XI D. Q OJ O Z 10 Pk u-t d a. o u. 3 ^ o CO -H 3 en t. CO u d 3 ■H NM C Qc: o z o ^ o o en d .« o - d d CO o OJ ■H CO H H Z -H o CO d ,^ >^ -H CO CO d Z o5 ■a CA u V4 -H u: 01 PM d CO -H M - O i^ is 3 "5 ^ .H 41 w 1 4-1 M A< »< a Q O 00 o o o o Nfl . . CO O O. O -H CO 3 O. U. '^ ^ Id 3 3 01 d d u OJ OJ 2 CO d 00 60 00 j= x: 3 CO en to 3 3 3 d o o cd •rH -H CO CO CO d CO 0) o x: o J ►J J JZ s £ -H U tJ U O > 3 3 u 01 CO HJ d CO jx: d OJ d Ji d CO O 3 o X X en u 3 X j= x; O 3 3 O M CO CO -^ -H O ii J s s o 4J o o 0. g <: m cj o u u Q a Q b s z o to en en cQ H H Tie Renewals and Costs 1 o oo r-< O 00 ^ in ■>D ^ »o -cf o> CO C7N CT. O "^ ""^ O iri o en ^ - ^ ^ OJ 1— < r J C3 1 LO f::f cs 3- CM r-- LO -^ CM en CM in •^ -^ vO in CM r* en ro oo 1— 1 r^ in 00 r^ t-- fN CO 2 ^ rH c 3 Ji C o o R a u o u to m e -o o B dJ w C (i> oj v. :3 r-i cu ^D *I3 CO O o o o o vD O --. ' ^ cTi en I .00 f-l . Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association M < M S W u OJ 1- tx r-i O CT^ in !» n) 3 t-g — --1 in CM r- in o ^ ■<)■ ^ r-~ CM ! r^ m in r^ ^ in en \o 00 1—1 00 so O OO <■ r-4 1 c O m — ' — I CM ^ CM m CM CM O CM O cJ ^' J J ri ; -1 O O -i <3> CJ\ 00 sO 00 %0 CM o- I5 en CM CO v£> .-1 CL, ^ in ^ cv; CM ^ ^ en ^ o cm' CM ^ ^ ^ ^ in « ^ "Ij "^ to C in r-^ _4 r^ _i CM ,0 GO vD C3S O rs O en C7S CM r^ CM ^ r^ ^ -^ in in OS o C3S <3- 00 CJs en m C3^ vO in r^ t-i c~l c?s cjs r^ 00 CM '-' ^ -' o C3S in -^ 00 vo so -^f in ^ , ai > in n to 4<; 3 o ^ CM vO M3 OO in r^ -J 00 CO s O JO •O to 0) C iJ c to 00 •H ..H QJ ^ O t. 4J O -H d- '^ 1-1 j: M to •a >• J£ u en 13 c O M ^3 O c c .^ w to •Ji O O 01 --I 1-1 o o •H U en r^ en r^ ^ CM so j .-1 en o CM CM CM CM CM --. rM ^ c^J en - O o> r-~ o CM en u| lO 00 esJo en ^ e^ in" ^ ^ ^ c J3 w c to CU 3 o in JC •H u tg •T-t U c CU CO to ►J n M c: O V (« eO - C ij H O to CO P CK C 0) -H C u J T3 « a U 4J U z X C 3 B :^ 00 (U — u ^ a U V nj ,-< (U — C 1^ ^1 >. OS c l-l 3 ^ 4) r-( -o Ij w , ") C H -H c eo 00 - S U en c ) i; >. ^3 ta en c 1 a •Ji u M s{) CU U Q T1 c fl H •'• M (J K n ji oj q3 3 00 C C CO nj IM CO •r-( j-i u j= -a n CO XJ OJ o c o to M -^ g «J o pa C o -H 01 c: , 01 cn r^ C3N vT r^ in -3- in to m 3 ~J ^ r- vo ^ vo 00 ^t en 00 -d" tn r^ tj\ .i: ^ tn IN r^ r-1 £> CN C-J ^ O -1 CM ^ r-i 00 CM o in o cm' ^' u 2 o o in CvJ cm' J J J O -1 -1 O CM o in o w ^' t-1 ^ ^ ^ j^ 5^ in ^ a^ o >o t3^ -• CM vO vj- en o m IN J O -<" .. . u > in to 4-> -a 01 c 1-1 M in -3- ov n m vo in > 0) > in d CO Ji 3 o 00 -1 CO c^ tn in in in lO ^ O O CM -3 ai 00 ^ in in S ij ^^ '^ -3 o O " X •o .^ Ij 01 -u to U T3 i^ 0) at in s: lu c J= M u H CO to J= to • ■ ^ ij j: - m jz a oc c AJ U O 01 0) i-l 4-> ^ 1 3 .^ o w H 0) H 4J T 3 O J3 CQ o z to u o. o 1-1 3 ::^ O to --i 3 ■r^ M o Z o ^ o CO o to c .^ o « c 04 H Z ■'^ O •rf to C •^ >, -H to to H c So: 1^ 04 -H -H J= U U -H i^ to - o .^ S3" >. ■r^ o; -1 1 M C ij - - o ca i- CO CJ C O -H Q o O OC O o to C 00 CO 00 CO ti j= .n 3 ta 3 (3. H CO en to 3 z ■r^ -r^ to to to 1-1 O iJ u c CO cu o b: J= -1 (J o o O > 3 3 4J (U M 0) c to u ,-1 C --1 r-J kl C J>; C m H ij 3 j3 j: j= O 01 3 3 O u to to -H -H en < ca u u u U Q a Q fa o Ui ^X X g ^^ Tie Renewals and Costs 3.17 2.80 0.37 2.61 3.97 1.33 2.10 12.77 2.31 3.43 D ^ r^ Ol CN 00 ^ NO CO ON CJN ON 00 CO r-1 r^ 00 00 un in in 5 :? "•" S; "' r^ -f in : (DC i^ S •HOC .J j: nj to w J-i Ji t« el o 3 o X >: O O CL ^ Dial indicators with 50-lb graduations conceivably exist, on scales with capacities in 300,000- to 400,000-lb ranges. The basic dial face capacity of 50,000 lb would be augmented by five or seven additional ranges to obtain total capacity. Such a dial could be con- verted to a dial face capacity of 250 kg by 25 kg increments. Such a rebuild would have to be accomplished on site and \\ ould probably be more costly than an alternate technique described next. 2. Piggyback Conversion — A suitable dial indicator on a scale with a remaining useful life can be provided with an attachment fitted to the dial pointer shaft. This device is an analog-to-digital converter, which digitizes tlie pointer shaft position and reads out to a digital display in SI units. The same readout also provides entry to weight printers as well as opening up tlie possibility of entry into a data handling system. A properly selected and applied converter has no discernible effect on opera- tion of the dial, and may prove to be an extremely low-cost means to generate SI information from an existing dial scale. Total cost of conversion and installation is in a $800 to $1,000 category (1975 dollars). C. Electromechanical Dial Indicators There are many contemporary weighing installations which use electromechani- cal dial indicators. These are the seno-driven units, normally furnished with an asso- ciated weight printer. They are commonly applied to scales of 300,000 and 400,000 lb capacity; thus, most of tlie scales with which they are associated have a substantial remaining useful life. Further, these indicators are always associated either with a scale having a load cell at the tip of the transverse lever, or they are applied to a scale weighbridge fully supported on load cells. In the first case, tliere is often a standby beam to allow weighing during power outages or during maintenance. The conversion method that sho ild be applied to electromechanical dial indi- cators and their associated printers is straightforward: effect a total replacement of the indicator and printer with contemporary equipment. This course of action is recommended over the alternative method, which would be a field rebuild of a complex electromechanical device, as well as a field rebuild of the associated printer. The cost of this rebuild would probably be more than the cost of procurement of totally new replacement equipment. An additional advantage would be derived, which is the installation of units which are full electronic, have no moving parts, and are far more reliable and durable than the electromechanical device. The owner should be aware that electromechanical dial indicators have been furnished to replace beam-type indicators on many existing scales. Thus, the con- Metric Planning for Track Scales 17 version to SI may be tlie third or fourth conversion applied to a particular scale. Thus, tlie scale capacity must be examined with respect to its continuing appropriateness. D. Full Electronic Weight Indicators These elements are, of course, quite modern and up-to-date. Tlicy will be found as the indicating element on new scales; they will also be found on older scales having been applied as conversions of older indicators. The same warning applies in this case: ensure that the scale capacity is adequate and appropriate for con- tinued use. Depending upon the particular instrument inxolved, conversion to SI units may range from reasonably difficult to straigthforward. In the simplest case, replacement electronics, usually in the digital counting section of die instrument, will provide the necessary con\ersion to SI units. Generally speaking, there will be few problems and relatively minor expense invoKed in converting older solid-state instruments to SI units; most manufacturers can provide the necessary hardware at this time. VI. CURRENT TECHNOLOGY Most scale manufacturers furnishing solid-state digital indicators for railroad weighing are presently (August 1975) manufacturing equipment that has inherent capability for calibration in SI units. In some cases, a switch labeled "LB-KG" is available to the operator or to the maintenance technician; selection of the weighing mode, as well as generation of output for data handling, is left to the discretion of the individual making the weighment. Or, the choice may be escalated to the super- visor of the operator by means of key-operated switches and the like. Equipment of this nature should be satisfactory for the remainder of its economic and useful life, because it is (or should be) being used to satisfy the internal educational require- ments and the presently perhaps infrequent needs of customers for SI weight data. Obviously, any equipment purchased today for railroad weighing should have tlie flexibility of mode selection; if a unit being considered doesn't have a simple "LB-KG" switch, the potential owner should investigate tlie complexity and cost of a subsequent conversion to SI units. VII. FUTURE TECHNOLOGY While new technology will be evident, as it already is, in the load-bearing elements of railroad ti^ack scales, it is expected that further drastic improvements in flexibility, capability, and cost, as well as reliability, will be appearing in the instrumentation for these scales. The advent, understanding, and application of microprocessors to digital electronics will be at the heart of these new capabilities. This report will not attempt to explain what a microprocessor is; there is a plethora of information presently appearing in the trade journals covering this in detail. Sufiice it to say that microprocessors have already been applied to weighing instru- mentation; they are essentially very small computers which can be programmed to manipulate digital data in any desired form. They offer memories of very useful sizes; the progranmiing of these memories allows establishment of manipulation routines that are useful in weighing. The attractiveness of the microprocessor is found in its elimination of many discrete components, a substantial reduction in power consumption and heat generation, with a concomitant increase in system reliability. Total integration of the data which affects weighing can l>e achieved with a tremendous reduction in the complexity of the equipment. It is not being 18 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association proposed here that weighing instrumentation can "do everytliing," but it is being suggested that future weighing instrumentation can do far more than previously, at greater rates of speed, and witli far greater reliability. Total integration of weight data, car identification, customer identification, marshalling requirements, rolling characteristics, and energy requirements, availability, and scheduling will become possible. Vm. SUMMARY This report has addressed the need — present and future — for weight data in SI units in railroad utilization. We have recognized the opportunity at hand for trial installations and/or conversions for our own education and to respond to early cus- tomer requirements. We have identified the common instruments presently installed, and how they may be converted or why they should be replaced by current tech- nology. We have recognized tliat we should be evaluating, comparing, and planning alternate courses of action that will enable us to provide weight data in SI units. We should examine each of our railroad weighing installations and decide if each particular installation should be converted; if so, how? — and when? We have briefly addressed what can be done today with tlie sketch forecast of what is to come. It is felt that the present supplier-user relationship existing in the railroad weighing industry is healthy, and will provide the medium by which all parties are kept appraised of die need on one hand, and the capabilities on the other. Finally, we have identified one immediate and short-range but necessary action that should be taken by the purchaster or specification writer for railroad weighing equipment. That action comprises the recommendation of the Metric Planning Subcommittee; namely, any type of scale or indicating element procured now and henceforth for railroad weighing shoidd Jiave the capahdity of indicating, recording, and transmitting, as appropriate, m 57 units. On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties* By ARNOLD D. KERR^ SUMMARY This report reviews first tlie methods presented in the hterature for the stress analysis of railroad track components and the results of a variety of validation tests. It was found tliat the equation EIw"' + kw = q yields deflections and bending stresses in the rails of longitudinal-tie and cross-tie tracks which agree sufficiently well (for design purposes) with corresponding track test results, provided the coefficients which enter the analyses are properly chosen. This is followed by a re- view and discussion of tlie methods for determining the coefficients which enter these analyses. The report concludes with recommended analyses and test methods for the determination of stresses in the rail-tie stioicture. INTRODUCTION After the introduction of metal rails, during tlie 19th century, two types of track were in use: the longitudinal-tie track and the cross-tie track. Whereas in the longitudinal-tie track the two metal rails are continuously suported by longi- tudinal ties, in the cross-tie track these rails are supported discretehj by cross-ties which are spaced at a prescribed distance from each other (1).** During the second half of tlie past century the longitudinal-tie track exhibited various deficiencies and its use diminished. As a consequence, in the past several decades the cross-tie track has become the dominant mode of track construction. When the cross-tie track was introduced, the wheel loads were very small and the tie spacing relatively large. For example, around 1800, the tie spacing was about 70 in. (1.8 m) (2). As the wheel loads progressively increased, the rail and tie cross-sections increased and the tie spacing decreased. According to E. Winkler (3), in 1875 the tie spacing on main lines was about 35 in. (0.9 m). A view of a typical track currently in use in the USA, vi'ith even smaller tie spacings, is shown in Fig. 1. Although the development of the railroad track, up to the present, was mainly intuitive, based on the trial and error approach, since the second half of the 19th century railroad engineers have been attempting to analyze the stresses in the track components. Tlie purpose of tliis report is to critically review tliese analyses and the related test results, in order to establish which of the proposed methods are suitixble for the analysis of tracks currently in use and the ones to be built in the future. THE STRESS ANALYSIS OF THE LONGITUDINAL-TIE TRACK SUBJECTED TO VERTICAL LOADS In 1867, E. Winkler (4) analyzed the stresses in the rails of a longitudinal-tie track by considering the rails as a continuously supported beam. The differential equation for the bending theory of an elastic beam EI -^ + p(x) = q(x) (1) ^ Visiting Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08540. ** Research sponsored by the U.S. DeiJartinent of Transiwrtation, Transportation Systems Center, under Contract DOT-TSC-900. *" Numbers in parentheses indicate references listed at the end of this report. 19 20 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association Fig. 1 — A typical railroad track in the U.S. On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 21 undeformed beam axis q(x) deformed beam Fig. 2 — Equilibrium position of deformed beam. was established by this time. In this equation w(x) is the vertical deflection at X, EI is the flexural rigidity of the rail and tie, q(x) is the distributed vertical load, and p(x) is the continuous contact pressure between the ties and base, as shown in Fig. 2. For the base response Winkler proposed the relation p(x) = k w(x) (2) where k is tlie base parameter. This is the origin of the well-known Winkler founda- tion model. The resulting track equation dV . , (3) EI dx* -f kw = q is a fourth-order ordinary differential equation. It represents the response of a beam which is attached to a spring base, as shown in Fig. 3. In Refs. (3) and (4) Winkler presented a solution of equation (3) for the special case of a beam of infinite extent subjected to equidistant concentrated loads of the same intensity. In order to simplify the obtained results, Winkler also con- sidered the case of increasing load spacing and obtained expressions which are the solution for a single concentrated load. (It appears tliat Winkler did not realize that, since he refers to them as "approximate formulas" ( 3 ) ) . Fig. 3 — Continuously supported beam subjected to a load a(x). 22 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association Fig. 4 — To the derivation of the bending rigidity of a longitudinal tie-track. In the analysis of the longitudinal-tie track, Winkler stipulated that EI = EJr + E.It (4) where ErL and Etit are the flexural rigidities of the rail and tie with respect to their centroidal axes. The above relation may be derived by assuming that, although tlie rail and longitudinal-tie press against each other, the friction forces in the contact area are negligible. (The calculated maximum bending stresses and deflections will thus be larger than die actual ones). Noting that at each point x the vertical displacements of the rail and longitudinal tie are the same, namely Wr(x) = Wt(x) =\v{x] (5) and diat at each x the contact pressures, p*(x), are equal but of opposite sign, as shown in Fig. 4, the differential equations for rail and tie may be written, respec- tively, as (6) Erir W'^' = q(x) — p'(x) EtIt w'^ z= p'(x) - p(x) where Ir and It are the moments of inertia of rail and tie with respect to the respec- tive centroidal axes. Adding tliese two equations, we obtain (EJr + EtIt) w'^ = q(x) - p(x) (7) Comparing equation (7) with equation (1) it may be concluded that for the longi- tudinal-tie track the EI to be used in equation (1) or (3) is (ErL + EtIt), which agrees with equation (4). On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 23 In 1882, J. W. Schwedler (5) discussing bending stresses in the rails of a longitudinal-tie track, presented the solution of equation (3) for the case when the infinite beam is subjected to one concentrated force P P/3 w(x) = 2k v{x) m(x) and the corresponding expression for the bending moment \X/ \ T-T d"W P M(x) = - EI -^^ = -^ where jS = k 4EI e-'^-^ [cos (/3x) + sin (fe)] e-"" [cos (iSx) — sin {P: X)] ^ x)] ; (8) (9) (lo; and •^(x) Schwedler also used the above expressions as influence functions to determine the effect of several wheel loads. For example, according to this method, for the three wheel loads Pi, P2, and Pa shown in Fig. 5 the deflections and bending moments at point O are Fig. 5 — To influence line method. 24 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association H 3 T« W = — -— N- P„ 77„ 2k nTi and (11) M = J- I P,. M„ 4j8 n^l For the determination of bending stresses in the rail and the longitudinal-rie, note that the bending moment at x is M(x) = M.(x) + Mt(x) (12) where Mr and Mt are tlie corresponding bending moments in rail and tie and that because of equation (5) Mr(x) = - ErrrW"(x) (13) Mt(x) = - E,I,w"(x) (14) and hence Mt (15) Erir E.I, Elimination of Mt from equation (12), by using equation (15), yields M. = ^^^ M (16) EI ^ ' and similarly Mt=-|'^'-M (17) The largest normal bending stresses in the rails and ties are then obtained from the well known stress formulas , \ MrCr Er M Cr / 1q\ ^"-^-- ^ -17~ "^ EI ^^^^ (aO.a. = ^^ E^l^ (19) where EI is given in equation (4). In 1888, H. Zimmermann (6) published a book which contained solutions of equation (3) for many special cases of interest for the analysis of a railroad track. Zimmermann, like Schwedler, utilized the obtained solutions to analyze the longi- tudinal-tie track as well as the ties of the cross-tie track. Of interest is the presented comparison of the deflection curves for a longitudinal-tie track caused by two loads of 7 tons each, obtained analytically and from a test, which are reproduced in Fig. 6. The close agreement between the measured and calculated ordinates pointed to the conclusion that the linear bending theory for a beam on a linear Winkler base was sufficient for the analysis of the longitudinal-tie track. THE STRESS ANALYSIS OF THE CROSS-TIE TRACK SUBJECTED TO VERTICAL LOADS The development of tlie analyses of rails for a cross-tie track was more imolved. It started by considering the rail as a beam resting on discrete rigid, then elastic supports, and then as a continuously supported beam. On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 25 analysis Fig. 6 — Comparison of deflections for longitudinal-tie track. In 1875, E. Winkler (3) presented an analysis of bending stresses in the rails, by considering each rail as an infinitely long elastic beam which rests on an infinite number of discrete rigid supports, as shown in Fig. 7(1). For the shown load dis- tribution he found that the largest possible bending moment is (20) M 0.1888 Pa Realizing the shortcoming of tlie Winkler assumption of rigid supports, Zimmer- mann (6) presented a bending stress determination considering the rail as a finite elastic beam on four discrete elastic supports (in order to simplify the analysis), as shown in Fig. 7(11). The obtained expression for the largest bending moment, which takes place under the load P, was given as M 87 + 7 Pa (21) 47+10 4 where 7 is the parameter of the discrete elastic support. Schwedler (5) proposed to analyze tlie rail by considering it as a beam over eight elastic supports subjected to one concentrated force. For the largest moment Schwedler obtained a similar exprcsssion to the one shown in equation (21). F. Engesser (7) analyzed the rail by considering it as an infinite beam on equidistant elastic supports subjected to a periodic arrangement of forces, as shown in Fig. 7(111). For the largest moment, Engesser obtained the expression M = 197 + 4 37 + 1 Pa 24 ;22) A similar approach was also utilized by a number of otiier investigators (many of these papers appeared in the journal Organ fur die Foi-tschritfe des Eisenbahn- wesens). These and related results are discussed by R. Hanker in Section B.V.3 of Ref. (8). 26 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association 2a I 1.88 I 1.88 a i 2a TS ^ ZS ^ S — — ZS ZS"^ S Z7"^ ZS ZT |. ° -I . ° I - ° I ■ ° i ^ p I ° I ° I- ° ■! ° -I- " -I- (I) Winkler model a I 2 I 2' I (II) Ziminermann model 3o 1^ 3a_ r r n >rn I ) iTn I nJn n in / n irn n I n n n irn n in n n n 1 1 n nn I nh ) I a a I T lXj a III) Engesser model r r 1^ ..r r -zs zrts zs-^s zrts zr-zs a' a ^1 3a . I q J . 2a , I I _ 3o i o i _. 2a I ° | ^ ^° •■ I °" I • (IV) VHEV model Fig. 7 — Proposed analytical models for the determination of largest bending moment in rails. An analysis of a beam on many discrete suiDports was at the time rather cum- bersome, since it involves tlie solution of many simultaneous algebraic equations. It was therefore natural that attempts were made to analyze the bending stresses in the rails by assuming that also for a cross-tie track the rails respond like a continu- ously supported beam. Early investigators who adopted diis approach are: A. Flamache (9) in 1904, S. Timoshenko (10) in 1915, and tlie ASCE-AREA Spe- cial Committee on Stresses in the Railroad Track (11) in 1917. The tendency of steadily increasing wheel loads, which was countered by a steady decrease of die cross-tie spacings, enhanced the justification of the "continuity" assumption. On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 27 [a) Bending moments along the beam; load applied between two support; (b) Bending moments along tne beam; ] oad applied over support Fig. 8 — Comparison of bending moments (15). The use of the "continuity" assumption, in conjunction with equation (2), for the cross-tie track prompted a number of studies to determine wliether this assump- tion is justified for the track parameters in use. One approach was to analyze the track as a beam on discrete elastic supports, then as a beam on a continuous Winkler base, and then compare the obtained results. Such a comparison was performed, for example, by C. S. Cough (12), E. Czitary (13), A. Wasiutynski (14) and A. D. dePater (15). Craphs from Ref. (15) which compare the bending moment distributions, are reproduced in Fig. 8. Note tlie good agreement of the shown results. A more recent comparative study. 28 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association COMPOSITE STRf.SS DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAM FOR TWO ONE-AXLE LOADS FROM TESTS ON ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD. "Lond on one Kail. P' IT 'KW lb. lk-R8 Ion;; 10000 • • ' " - T ;' jl \ I _ --| ! /V , ' " ! '- lOOOO ;a* 1 000 KUh. llail. C"x .s"Tio». l^'Callnxt. n 3 10 000- 3000- P 10 000- •-. 5000- 10 000- iOOO- 3 LxiKTliiiciital. 0- — -o Coinjioslic. Anrilytlcal. Fig. 9 — Comparison of stresses for cross-tie track (11). with error estimate, was presented by H. Luber (16). Related results were published by C. B. Biezeno (17), C. Popp (18-19), G. Hutter (20), and J. P. Ellington (21). Gough (12) and Ellington (21) also studied the effect of a missing tie. According to Ref . ( 21 ) when the base is relatively soft, for a concentrated load over the missing tie, the increase in the largest possible bending moment at the missing tie is about 30%. The increase of the largest possible bending moment for a relatively rigid base is over 100%. Another approach was to compare the results based on equation (3) with cor- responding test results obtained using an actual track. For examples of this approach refer to the studies by the ASCE-AREA Special Committee on Stiesses in Railroad Track (11) (22). One of the comparisons from Ref. (11) is reproduced in Fig. 9. Note that also in this study the results for the bending moments show good agreement. Because of the agreement found in such comparative studies, and the absence of a better ( and simple ) analytical approach, the validity of tlie "continuity" assump- tion, in conjunction with the Winkler hypothesis, equation (2), was accepted by a number of railroads as a basis for the analysis also of cross-tie tracks (23-24). On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 29 The acceptance of this method was not universal, however, and many railroads had their own methods of track analysis. To demonstrate this point let us consider the corresponding developments at the railroads of central Europe. Since World War I an attempt was made by the central European railroads (Verein Mitteleuropaischer Eisenbahnverwaltungen, VMEV) to standardize the analyses of the track, by comparing the available analyses with test results. As part of this effort, for several years stresses were measured in the rails of the German and Dutch tracks which were caused by a train of a prescribed composition (25). The obtained results were then compared with the calculated stresses based on die bending moment foiTnulas of Winkler, Zimmermann, and van Dijk (who like Zim- mermann used discrete elastic supports, but took into consideration the effect of adjoining wheel loads). On tiie basis of tliis comparison it was concluded that the axle-load spacing is an important parameter, that the use of discrete elastic supports led to too high stresses, and that the analysis based on rigid discrete supports yielded stress values which in the mean agreed with the measured ones. Based on these conclusions, the Technical Committee of VMEV, at its meeting held September 16-18, 1930, in Miinster, Germany, recommended an analysis of the rails, developed by tiie Dutch railroads, which is based on a weightless beam which rests on rigid discrete supports with possibility of lift-off and is loaded by a periodic load distribution, as shown in Fig. 7 (IV). The recommended expression for the bending moments under a load, which is always located in midspan, is M = 12mn- 7(m -f n) + 4 p^ (23) 16 [3mn — (m -\- n)J where m, n are wheel set separation parameters shown in Fig. 7 (IV). For addi- tional details of the recommendations the reader is referred to Ref. (25), p. 120. For a discussion of this method of analysis refer to Hanker, Ref. (8), p. 39. As part of the above effort, preliminary tests were also conducted for the determination of tiie base parameter k which enters equation (3), in order to deter- mine whether equation (3) is suitable for the analysis of the cross-tie track, and thus whether the "standard" track analysis of VMEV could be based on equation ( 3 ) . Since no conclusive results were obtained, the Technical Committee recom- mended (also in 1930) that member railroads conduct tests to determine k using a standard test. The recommended test consisted of loading vertically one tie, which was sepa- rated from the rails by removal of the fasteners, and then by recording its vertical displacement due to the load. Two "point" loads were generated by a loaded freight car (about 16 tons) which was equipped with two hydraulic pumps mounted be- tween the two wheel sets. The pumps, when activated, pressed against the tie lifting up the car; thus exerting about 16 tons on the tie (Ref. (25), p. 121). A total of 385 tests were conducted on the lines of the German, Dutch, and Swiss railroads. The Technical Committee of VMEV could not detect definite effects of the various types of ballast, of the condition of the ballast, or of the type of the ties on the vertical tie displacements. It did notice a strong effect on the tie response by the type of sub-base, but could not establish a tendency based on sub- base properties. On the basis of these findings, the Technical Committee of VMEV, at its meeting in Stockholm May 28-30, 1935, passed a resolution to recommend to its member railroads not to use equation (3) for the analysis of the railroad track (25). It appears that the main problem with the above study (and the VMEV 30 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association resolution) was that the test set-up used to obtain the base parameter k, which loads only one tie, is conceptually incorrect. The first shortcoming is that tiie base parameter k depends on the size of the loading area (27) (28). Thus, the loading with one tie does not yield tire same coefficient k as the loading by a row of closely spaced ties encountered in an actual track. The conceptual difficulties encountered by Driessen (Ref. (25), p. 125), who observed that the adjacent ties when separated from the rails although unloaded also displaced vertically, are closely connected to this phenomenon. The second shortcoming is that the material properties of the ballast and sub-soil, because of their granular character, vary locally. Thus the loading of only one tie, at difterent locations along the track, will necessarily show a wide scatter in die obtained data. This is very apparent from the test data presented by Driessen (Ref. (25), p. 123). For a critical discussion of some of the arguments presented by Driessen (26), who favored the VMEV decision, refer to R. Hanker (Ref. (29), Section IV). It should be noted that the VMEV decision was made in spite of the findings of the extensive study by the ASCE-AREA Committee (11) (22) discussed previously and the opinion of many central European track experts (30-37), who favored the use of equation (3) for the analysis of rail stresses. In 1937, A. Wasiutynski (14) published the results of an extensive experimental program performed on a main line track by subjecting it to moving locomotives and by comparing the obtained results with those based on equation (3). The presented graphs show general agreement between the measured and calculated deHections and bending moments for the rails; thus confirming tlie findings of the ASCE-AREA Committee (11) ( 22 ) that equation ( 3 ) is suitable for the rail analysis of the cross-tie track. In the course of the following decades the use of the analysis based on equa- tion (3) found general acceptance, as evident from the writings by S. Timoshenko and B. F. Langer (38), C. W. Clarke (39), G. Sauvage (40), J. Eisenmann (41), H. C. Meacham, R. H. Prause and J. D. Waddell (42) and the Association of American Railroads (43) as well as from the books by W. W. Hay (44), M. Shrini- vasan (45), R. Hanker (8), A. Schoen (46), G. Schramm (47), G. M. Shakhuny- ants (48), M. A. Frishman and co-authors (49), and V. V. Basilov and M. A. Chemyshev (50). However, as pointed out by Schoen (Ref. (46), p. 258), the simple fonnulas, equations (20) and (21), in spite of their known deficiencies, are still being used by a number of railroads for the determination of the largest bending moment in the rails of a cross-tie track. A shortcoming of track analyses based entirely on equation (3) was suggested by the observation that, for example, in front of a locomotive over a certain interval the track lifts off the ballast. Because of the separation of the rail-tie frame from the ballast, in this domain equation (3) is not valid, since k r= 0. Problems of this type were recently solved by Y. Weitsman (51). Once the "continuity" of rail support is adopted, the determination of the force the rail exerts on a tie is very simple; it is the contact pressure integrated from half span to half span; or approximately, the pressure ordinate at the tie multi- plied by the center-to-center tie spacing. The determined largest force, Fmax, tliat each rail could exert on a cross-tie caused by tiie anticipated wheel loads of a moving tiain, are then used for the stress analysis of the cross-tie, as shown in Fig. 10. A cross-tie anahjsis based on equation (3) was presented by Zimmermann (6) in 1888. A major shortcoming of this analysis is the assumption that the tie On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 31 II I . P 'max L/2 L/2 Lb '^max I'^mox 2'^mox P2- -^ ^2 L* b L* Fig. 10 — To the stress analysis of cross-ties. rests on a unifomi linear Winkler base, which is not the case in the field. In order to prevent "end-bound" or "center-bound" ties, the ballast is usually tamped under each rail seat. Thus, the resulting contact pressure distribution is often as shown in Fig. 10. (For actual test results refer to Ref. (11), Second Progress Report, 1920.) Because of the continuously varying contact pressure distribution, caused by chang- ing ballast properties due to the moving trains and environmental factors, the design analysis of ties is often based on the simplifying assumption that the contact pressure distribution is uniform and extends over a distance L or L**, as indicated in Fig. 10 (Distributions I and II). The values L and L* are based on experience ((52), p. 285, (39), p. 159, (42), I p. 52). Because of the uncertainty in the tie support conditions during the tie service life, this method, although very simple, yields an upper bound on the expected tie bending stresses and thns seems sufficient for tie design purposes. 32 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association DETERMINATION OF THE PARAMETERS IN EQUATION (3) FOR THE CROSS-TIE TRACK The utilization of equation (3) for the stress analysis of the rails and the deteniiination of the forces tlie rails exert on the cross-ties, requires the knowledge of three entities: the load parameter q, the bending rigidity EI, and the base parameter k. The Load Parameter q The load parameter is determined from tlie geometry and the axle loads of the locomotives and cars to be used on the track under consideration. Thus, once the anticipated rolling stock and admissible train speeds are established, the parameter q, which enters equation ( 3 ) , is known. Since q usually consists of a large number of concentrated forces (wheel loads), the resulting deflections and bending moments are determined using the influence function metliod, as indicated in equation (11). The Bending Rigidity El in the Vertical Plane The bending rigidity of the rail-tie structure in the vertical plane is usually assumed to be the product of E for rail steel multiplied by the two moments of inertia of each rail with respect to the horizontal axis wliich passes tlirough their centroids. The determination of EI was the subject of a major controversy in the early 1930's. Nemcsek (30, 35) and Janicsek (32, 36) were of the opinion that tlie cross- ties contribute to die rigidity of the track and added the I of the ties divided by the tie spacing to the I of the rails, whereas Sailer (31, 34) and Hanker (37) argued that the effect of the ties is negligible. This controversy ended without agreement among the authors (53). The inclusion of the I of the cross-ties, as done by Nemcsek and Janicsek, is definitely not correct. However, the close spacing of the ties and the rigidity of some of the fasteners currently in use, may contribute to an increase of the "effec- tive" bending rigidity of the track, which in turn may have an effect on w(x). To illustrate this phenomenon, consider the strongly exaggerated situation, shown in Fig. 11, in which a beam is periodically "rigidized." The eftect of the rigid parts on the global response of the beam is obvious: It leads to smaller deflections and an increased "effective" rigidity. Because of the close tie spacing currently in use on main lines, it may be advisable to measure the rail deflections and stresses in an actual track, in order to establish whether the "rigidization" of the rails in the fasteners noticeably affects them. As part of this test program one could also study the effect of tlie tie resistance to rotation about their long axes on the track response, as discussed by Hanker (29) and Kerr ( 1 ) . These rotational resistances do occur, but are not taken into con- rigid zone (fastener) elastic zone Fig. 11 — Idealized beam model to demonstrate the effect of the fasteners on the bending rigidity of the rails. On the Stress Analysis of Rails and Ties 33 sideration in equation (3). As shown by Kerr (1), tlie corresponding differential equation is EI i!^ - P -4^ + kw :.. q (3') dx* dx" where p is the rotational proportionality coefficient. The Base Parameter k The Winkler assumption for the base response p(x) = kw (x) (2) is an approximation. A major shortcoming of this representation is the absence of shear interactions between the vertical base elements. These questions were discussed by A. D. Kerr (54) in 1964. Refer also to (27) and (28). Because of the simplifying assumptions implicit in relation (2), the k coefficient which enters equation (3) is not a true constant, but depends on tlie size of the loading area. As pointed out previously, this was one of the reasons why the loading of only one tie, as suggested and practiced by VMEV, did not yield meaningful results. In tliis connection note also tlie more recent test results reported by F. Bir- mann (55), which were obtained utilizing tliis approach. According to H. Nagel (56), this test method is being used by the DB for the determination of the effi- ciency of track compaction. In view of the approximate nature of equation (2) and of the governing equation (3), the method for the determination of k should be such tiiat the analytically obtained quantities (like rail deflections and/or the stress distribution in the rails) should represent the corresponding actual quantities as closely as pos- sible. To achieve this objective, first of all a test for the determination of k should involve a relatively long section of track subjected to vertical loads, similar to the actual situation in the field. In the following, three methods for the determination of k are discussed which utilize the entire track and in which the rails are loaded vertically, as shown in Fig. 12. The difl^erence between these methods is the way the k-value is computed from the obtained test data. One method for the determination of k was used by the AREA-ASCE Special Committee ((11) First Progress Report, 1918) and by Wasiutynski (14). Although the agreement found between analytical and test results for rail deflections and stresses appears satisfactory, questions may be raised regarding the validity of the used mediod for calculating k from the test data. To demonstrate this point, let us derive the formulas used in (11) and (14) for the determination of k, and thus establish the assumptions they are based on. For this purpose consider the track subjected to two loads P, as shown in Fig. 12. The corresponding averaged deflection of the two rails over each tie caused by 2P, is denoted by Wm. To avoid future misunderstandings, in the following the founda- tion modulus for the two rails is denoted by k and the one for only one rail by kr. Consider the two rails as a beam which rests on discrete linearly elastic springs with spacing a, as showm in Fig. 12(1). Assuming that k is the spring constant for the two rails and ^r for one rail, it follows from vertical equilibrium that 2F = K :^ Wn or p = K, :s wn (24) n--co nn-oo Bul. 650 34 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association Ji ^^^^^^^^^O<^l^^^^..''<^^o^^^^^<^^ n-2 n-l 1 a 1 a •.:-^- r 1 1 1 (I) 77 i Por 2P „^ 4 ;! :^ 4 4 ;^; k 777777777777777777777777777777777T77T77777T777777 (I) JO lf..ff.f.l^..^.^. Por 2P Fig. 12 — To the derivation of expressions for the determination of the base parameters. Thus, the spring constants, which are assumed not to vary along the track are 2P and kr = (25) where Wn are the measured ( averaged ) rail deflections at each tie and K, — K/2 (25') Next, consider the two rails as a beam which rests on a continuous Winkler base, as shown in Fig. 12(11). Then vertical equilibrium yields . 2P = r p(x)dx = k /" w(x)d: X or P = kr /" w(x)dx (26: Thus On the Sti'ess Analysis of Rails and Ties 35 k = ^ and k. = ? (27) / \v(x)dx / w(> .Odx — CO and kr = k/2 (27') In order to find the dependence between k and k, or '>r and k,, we equate tlie corresponding right hand sides of (24) and (26) since, for a given test, tlie P vahies are tlie same. This results in '-V 00 ^"^ CO f \v{x)dx = /c 2 w„ and k. f w(x)dx = k^ 2 w„ (28) k — 00 — oo or rewritten, noting that tlie tie spacing e is constant, "^ CO k Av(x)dx =— S Wne and ^'r/w(x)dxz= ■^ Wna (29) The integral in equation (29) is the area formed by the deflection curve. When the tie spacing is so small that CO „ f w(x)dxZ 2 w„a (30) — CO then the equations in (29) reduce to k = -!^ and kr = -^ (31) a a This is the relationship introduced by Timoshenko (10), also presented by M. Hetenyi (57) p. 27, whose derivation seems to be missing in tlie literature (Hanker (37) p. 93; Sailer (53) p. 97). Eliminating k and ^r from (31), using (25), yields k = ^ ^^ and kr = -^ (32) ^ Wna ^ Wna n = -w n = — 00 which are equivalent to the equations in (27), when equation (30) is valid. According to the above procedure two loads P are placed on the track, as shown in Fig. 12, and the deflections w of the rails over each tie are measured. Then the « or ^r value is obtained using (25) and the corresponding k or kr value using (32). Note that for tests which use more wheel load, the above derivations are valid by replacing P with the sum of the used loads. Determining the rail foundation modulus in this manner, the ASCE-AREA Special Committee (U)" and Wasivitynski (14) found good agreement between 'According to (11), 1st Progress Report, Section 47, the expression for the determination of k is the same as the one shown in equation (32), except that the denominator is multiplied by the number of ties in the track test .section. In view of the above derivations, this is incorrect. 36 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association the measured rail deflections and rail stresses and tlie corresponding values based on equation (3). The result of one such comparison is shown in Fig. 9. Nevertheless a question may be raised regarding tlie general validity of equation (25) and equation (32) from a conceptual viewpoint. For this purpose, consider a long straight track which, when subjected to loads 2P, deflects as shown in Fig. 12. According to equation (32), the corresponding k-value is k=-^ (33) where Ai is the area formed by the straight and deflected rail axes. Next, imagine the rails replaced by much lighter (or much heavier rails), without disturbing the base, and then subjected again to 2P. It is easy to realize that the area formed by the straight and the new deflection curve, A2, will generally not be equal to Ai. Thus, the calculated k-value will not be the same, aldiough the ties, ballast, and sub-base (whose properties k represents) are identical for both cases. It appears that for equation (32) to yield reasonable k-values, in the test the contact shape and the EI of the structure (here tlie rail-tie system) should be as close as possible to the one to be analyzed. The other two methods for the detennination of k or kr also utihze the test set-up shown in Fig. 12, but detemiine the value by comparing a measured deflec- tion or a strain with the corresponding value based on equation (3). This is a proper approach, since tlie criterion for determination of k should be that the analytical results represent the actual ones as closely as possible. These two methods are described in the following. In one method (38) the deflections of both rails under the loads 2P are measured. The average of these two deflections, w,,,, is substituted in equation (8). Placing the origin of x at the wheel load, thus x ^r at P, it follows tliat 2P l/4E(k) P /- 4E(2Ir) ^ r 4EIr Wm = or Wm = (34) 2k 2k, where E is Young's modulus for rail steel and Ir is the moment of inertia of a rail with respect to the horizontal axis which passes through its centroid. Comparing the equations in (34) it follows that k =: 2kr, in agreement with equation (27'). Solving each equation in (34) for k, the only imknown, we obtain 3/ pi 3/ p ^ = ''y EL w-„ -^d k. = ^A^ j,!^ ^.^ (35) The other method for the determination of k is based on tlie measurement of the strain at the bottom of each rail under the load, by means of strain gauges. The average value of die t\\'o measurements, e„,, multiplied by E for rail steel yields the corresponding stress, (Tm = Ecm. Noting that the bending moment M(0) is given in equation (9), and that the bending stress at tlie bottom is ^ = M(0)zo/I, it follows that 2P , P ., 4 5^_ or (r„ = — ^° (36) 4 / j^ (2Ir) 4 / j^- Ir y 4E(2L) 4 r 4EL On the Stress Anal ysis of Rails and Ties 37 where Zo is the vertical distance between the centroid of tlie rail and its bottom surface. Solving for k, the only unknown, we obtain k ^^ ,nd k ^^ (37) Note tliat when equation (35) is used, k is determined by equating the deflection obtained analytically with tlie measured value at only one point, namely at P. When equation (37) is used, k is determined by equating the analytical expression and the measured value of the bending strain also at only one point. Thus, in both approaches k is determined by equating only one analytical and test quantity at one point. In view of the good agreement between the deflection curves and bending moments, based on equation (3) and the corresponding test data of actual tracks shown in (11) and (14), the determination of k by equating only one analytical and test quantity at one point may be sufficient. From the above discussion it follows that the value of k or kr could also be determined from a least-square (or any other suitable) fit of the measured and calculated deflections, or stresses, or other quantities of special interest which can be easily measured. It appears, that the method for the determination of k which uses relations (35) or (37) or both, because of its simplicity and non-destructive character, may be the most suitable one also for the determination of tlie efficiency of track compaction machinery, if the value of k is a suitable indicator. In connection with the above discussion of the loads, bending rigidities, and rail foundation moduli, note that when botli rails are considered as a track-beam then equation (3) becomes 2EIr 1 4 -[- k W = qtrack (38) whereas when only one rail is considered tiien tlie corresponding differential equation is EIr -^ -1- k,w = q..n (39) where qt.ack = 2 q,aii. THE STRESS ANALYSIS OF RAILS SUBJECTED TO NON-CENTRAL AND LATERAL LOADS The vertical force of an actual railroad wheel does not act on tlie rail centrally. Furthennore a wheel of a moving train exerts on tlie rail also lateral forces. Cor- responding stress analyses and test results were presented by S. Timoshenko (58) and by S. Timoshenko and B. F. Laiiger (38). A more recent discussion of diese stresses is contained in a paper by J. Eisenmann (59) and in an ORE report (60). It may be of interest to note, however, that to date many railroads do not require such analyses. For example, according to Schoen (46), Vol. I, p. 250, the eftect of tlie lateral forces is taken into consideration by choosing a low value for tlicr proper acknowledgment was made I)y tlie engine- man, and what action he took in controlling the locomoti\(' speed. 4.3.2 Continuous Cab Signals In these systems, a cab signal displays in the locomotive cab the signal aspect Bui. 659 48 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association applicable to tlie block and ti-ack conditions immediately ahead of the locomotive. Wayside signals are no longer required except approach and interlocking signal. Cab signals give continuous, current information wliich is always visible to the engine- man enabling him to proceed at maximum permissible speed even when outside visi- bilit>- is limited. Since the cab signal changes when block conditions change, he is able to increase speed prompth' when the signal becomes more favorable, instead of proceeding to the next wayside signal at unnecessarily low speed. Because of these operating advantages, the economic benefits of cab signals cannot be over- looked. Cab signals haxe been used to increase average speeds, tiack capacit>', and on time performance as well as safety and are adaptable to all types of motive power. To increase the effectiveness of visual cab signals, a warning wliistle is provided in the cab which sounds each time tlie cab signal displays a more restrictive aspect. The whistle continues to sound until the engineman presses an acknowledgment button. In the operation of cab signals, the signal s>stem is in continuous communica- tion with the locomotixe using the rails as the communication link. The track circuits are energized b\' alternating current (60 or lOOHz) ^\'llich is interrupted at diflFerent rates in accordance with the track conditions in the blocks ahead; Overspeed control is an adjunct to the basic cab signal systems. It serves the vital role of enforcing the control of train speeds in accordance witii the signal s\"stem. 4. 3. .3 Automatic Train Control Automatic Train Contiol (ATC) systems ensure the safety of operation and pro\ide for automatic operation of individual trains. An ATC system consists of one or more sub-systems, nameh': — Automatic Train Protection (ATP) — Automatic Train Operation (ATO) — Automatic Train Supervision (ATS) The ATP sub-system maintains safe separation between trains, ensures com- pUance with the speed limits imposed by hack ahgnment and prev-ents train move- ment over unsafe track segments such as misahgned switches or broken rails. This sub-system embraces all of the vital (safety) functions, die other ATC sub-systems are non-vital. The ATO sub-system is the automatic motorman that controls traction, i.e., the brakes and motor. Speed commands derived from the ATP sub-system are used by the ATO sub-system to regulate the speed of the train. The ATS sub-system is used mainly on liigh-density rapid bansit lines to mom'- tor overall system performance and to make such changes in operating procedures as might be indicated in order to maximize tlie efficiency of the system. The ATS sub-system communicates between the trains and tlie wayside using separate com- munication hnks. Automatic train control in North America has reached its highest state of de\'elopment in connection with rapid tiansit systems. The original automatic s\'stem was the Times Square Shuttle on the New York City Transit Autiiorit\' wluch went into operation in 1962. The next fully automated tiansit operation was the Expo Express which was the main transportation system for Expo '67 in Montreal, Quebec. Modem automated transit systems are the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Economics of Systems for Control of Train O peration 49 Transit S>stem (Bx\RT) and the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit S>stem (WMATA). Mainline railroad automation has been limited by and large to mining opera- tions with runs of 100 miles or less. Notewortliy among these installations is the electrified Carol Mine Railroad in Labrador. This railroad is a completely automatic operation involving more than one train on the mainline at one time. Limited automation has been applied to the Great Slave Lake Railroad running between Peace River, Alberta, and Hay River, Northwest Territories, in Canada; tlie Black Mesa & Lake Powell Railroad in Arizona and the Muskingham Electric Railroad in Ohio. On these railroads only one train is permitted on the mainline at a gi\en time, consequently the need for the maintenance of safe separation between trains does not exist. The automation which has lieen applied to these railroads con- sists of tlie ATO function only, serving to control the speed of the trains within prescribed limits set by intermittent trackside devices mounted either in the track or along the right-of-way. 4.4 Traffic Control Systems 4.4.1 Timetable and Train Order System This method of directing trains is a time interval method that provides authority for the movement of regular trains subject to the rules. Under normal operation when trains conform to timetable schedules tliere is no unplanned delay, but if the schedules are interrupted or extra trains are run, it tlien becomes necessary to issue additional train orders to authorize train move- ments. When a delay occurs to a train after a meet or pass has been arranged, the same or greater delay is inflicted on the other train because of the inflexibility and difficult>- in rearranging "meets and passes." Density of traflBc will determine the number of train order offices required, and tlie form of train orders to be issued. The flexibility of operation is in inverse relation to the distance between sidings and train order stations and potential delay is in direct relation to the distance between sidings and train order stations. The cost of operation is in direct relation to the number of train order stations. 4.4.2 Timetable and Train Order With Manual Block System Manual block is a method of spacing trains in which signals or other means of displaying indications, normally at stop, are operated manually, without electrical or mechanical check, subject only to the rules. The manual block system is usually a supplement to timetable and train order operation. The block signal may be the train order signal. The system is flexible to the extent that the control facilities provided can be either increased or decreased as tralBc warrants by either shortening or lengthening the blocks. On hght traffic lines, block lengths of 5 to 7 miles do not cause excessive delays. Howe\er, on a line with a traffic density of 20 or more trains per day, the use of an absolute block for passenger trains, which permits only one train in 5 or 7 mile block section, results in considerable delay time. The addition of block stations to reduce delay results in a relativeh' high cost of operation. 50 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association 4.4.3 Automatic Block System The continuous track circuit, which pro\-ides an economical and safe method of maintaining a space interval between following and opposing train movements is the fundamental element of the automatic block system. The space inter\al or block may vary between a few hundred feet to two or more miles in length. 4.4.3.1 Rule 251 ^^^lere standard code Rule 251 is in effect, trains wiU run with reference to other trains in the same direction b> block signals whose indications will supersede the superiority' of trains. Train orders are only required for movements against the current of traffic except the movement of work extras which will be governed by train orders. 4.4.3.2 Rule D 151 On double track, trains must keep to the right unless otherwise provided. Where 3 or more main tracks are in ser\ice, they shall be designated by names or numbers and their use indicated by special instructions. 4.4.4 Centralized TraflSc Control Centralized traffic control (CTC) is a method of train operation by signal indi- cations which makes it economically possible to greatly extend the territory controlled from one station. Tliis system of tiain operation is considered to be among the outstanding developments in the railroad field and is extensively used as a means of directing tiains because of the economy in operation which it eflFects. It not only affords direct economies in tiansportation, but it makes possible a more intensive use of track facilities, motive power, cars, manpower, etc. The greatest savings produced by centralized traffic control is the elimination of train orders, except those for temporary slow orders, and the substitution thereof of operation by signal indication. Savings result from a reduction of the time lost in sidings due to conditions luiforeseen by dispatchers in arranging meets and by train crews clearing superior trains. CTC pro\'ides the flexibiht>' not available with other methods of operation to quickly change rights, meeting points, etc., as chang- ing conditions dictate. The time delay element in the transmission of orders is practically eliminated. This results in more eflBcient dispatching. Direct contiol of each train movement is made possible without dependence upon a system of control invohdng intermediate operators for the delivery of orders. The train controller (train dispatcher) has the added capability of adjusting train priorities to suit changing conditions on a real time basis. The train order in tlie signal indication system is g\'en by signal indi- cation to the engineman at the point and time desired. CTC normally involves the use of remotely controlled switches at the ends of passing sidings. The use of power-operated switches adds tlie advantage of the ehmination of train stops when trains are required to take the siding, or to cross- over from one main track to another. However, the power operation of switches is not an inherent requirement; they may be hand or spring operated. 4.4.4.1 Full CTC On a full CTC system both siding switches are power operated and usually intermediate signals are installed as required to provide for following moves. Economics of Systems for Control of Train Operation 51 4.4.4.2 Modified CTC Modified CTC is a term used to denote a CTC system where one switch of a siding is power operated and one switch is spring operated. This has the advan- tage of reducing the capital cost of the system; however, it also reduces the flexi- bihty of the system. The term may also denote a CTC system which has no power switches, both ends of sidings being equipped vwth hand tlirowii switches. It may or may not include intermediate signals for following movements. 4.4.4.3 Long Sidings This is a full CTC system in which sidings are signalled to permit the entry of trains at a speed other than restiicted speed and which are long enough to permit the stopping of a ti^ain in the siding entering at the designed speed. These sidings may be extended in length to include 2 or more blocks and eventually take the form of a partial double track. 4.4.4.4 Rule 263 (261) Where standard code rule 261 is in effect, movements are made in both direc- tions on the same track controlled by block signals whose indications will supersede the superiority of trains for both opposing and following movements on the same track. Thus train orders pertaining to superiority and right of track are no longer required. 4.4.5 Radio Control Systems A radio control system consists of various functions which may be installed individually or collectively as a complete system. The basic functions are: 1. Locomotive identification units at fixed locations along the track. 2. A control imit wliich issues commands from a control office. 3. A computer which automatically controls several trains or locomotives by sending dispatching logic commands to the locomotive engineman or on- board equipment. 4. The monitoring of switch settings and remote throwing of switches as required. The transmission of commands and information is primarily by radio and /or microwave separate from the normal verbal radio communication system. 4.4.6 Interlocking Interlocking is defined as an arrangement of signal and signal appliances so interconnected that their movements must succeed each other in proper sequence. There are three different types of interlocking plants: mechanical, relay and solid state. Mechanical Control is defined as a system of levers that are rod connected from the office to the actual switch or signal. This system has a bed of locking devices which permits only one non-conflicting route to be establislicd at one time. Power switches and electrical circuits replaced the rod connection on many mechani- cal plants, but retained the bed locking for safety purposes. The all-relay inter- locking systems were developed in the early 1930's. These replaced the bed locking systems using a series of relays to establish and protect routes. By the mid-1960's the availabihty of sofid state equipment which permitted many station functions to operate within a very short time period, virtually elimi- nated the code line transmission problem. There are two basic types of control systems in today's modern interlocking systems. The most common is the unit lever type in which each switch and each signal must be cleared individually. In interlocking areas where traffic volumes ItuJ. 6o» 52 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association are high, the entrance-exit system is in use. The operator simply presses the button representing the track from which the train will enter and the button which repre- sents the track from wliich the train will depart and the system will align all the switches and signals for that route. If tliere is a conflicting move which has already been cleared, the system will show out-of-correspondence and the operator will have to initiate a new request when the conflicting move has been completed. 4.4.6.1 Remote Interlocking Remote interlocking is defined as an interlocking, which may or may not be located in CTC territory that is controlled from a point other than where it is physically located. Switch and signal instructions controlled by unit levers are sent to the remote locations over a code line. 4.4.6.2 Automatic Interlocking A standard relay interlocking plant located at a grade crossing of two or more railroads controlled by approach circuits. The first train to pass the approach circuit will be lined automatically. The second train to pass the approach circuit will be allowed to enter the interlocking as soon as the first train clears the interlocking. Automatic interlockings can or cannot be used where one or both lines have light traffic densit>'. They may or may not be used in conjunction with CTC operation. 4.4.7 Dispatching Train dispatchers are assigned well defined territories for which they are responsible for all train and on track movements. Each dispatcher is assigned a given territory. These territories are sometimes combined on certain days of the week and/or periods of the day, in relation to the traffic density, i.e., one dispatcher will handle what two or more dispatchers handle during periods of the day or week of normally heavier traffic. 4.4.7.1 Decentralized Dispatching For many years, dispatchers were located within or adjacent to their oper- ating territory. This was done mainly because communication systems were not reliable over long distances. 4.4.7.2 Centralized Dispatching As communications improved, dispatchers were generally consolidated at divi- sion superintendents' offices. This simplifies the gathering of operating data and reduces the clerical forces required. On many railroads microwave communications systems have permitted furtlier consolidations. Some roads have gone to regional dispatcher o£Rces and a few roads have gone to system offices. The regional concept reduces duplication in report gathering and transmission. The system concept further reduces gathering and reporting efforts but may create other problems. Once the train operation is sepa- rated from the division superintendent and the local trainmasters, cost and discipline may be difficult to control. Most railroads have gone to central motive power control bureaus. This lends itself to centralized dispatching as it consolidates train operation. Placing more dispatchers in one office reduces the number of qualified people it takes to cover all of the positions. Extra dispatchers can qualify for more jobs if they are located in the same office. Relocation of dispatchers is not without problems, however. Since central headquarters are normally located in large cities, it may make contract jobs less desirable. Economics of Systems for Control of Train Operation 53 4.4.7.3 Manual Dispatching Trains handled in non-CTC territory are controlled by timetable and train order operation. The dispatcher records all O.S. (on station or on sheet) reports and other pertinent information on his train sheet. He issues train orders and re- cords this information in a train order book. 4.4.7.4 Semi-Automatic Dispatching Train dispatching systems handled by unit lever type CTC machines which are not equipped with train graphs or other recording devices are considered semi- automatic. The train dispatcher controls the signals, but still records O.S. reports and otlier train movements on a train sheet. 4.4.7.5 Automatic Dispatching Train dispatching systems handled on a push-button control console where entire routes can be estabHshed at one time and equipped with some type of auto- matic recording device such as a pen graph to report O.S. times by each station, are considered automatic. Train sheets are kept to record train information other than O.S. reports at intermediate stations. 4.4.7.6 Computer-Assisted Dispatching The development of computer-assisted dispatching makes centralizing of dis- patchers more desirable. Computer-assisted dispatching is a system where a process control computer does routine train dispatching fmictions and calls conflicting moves to the attention of the dispatcher. He can then decide which train he wishes to move first. The system can also be programmed for automatic meets under advance in- structions made by the dispatcher. It may also be arranged to assist in the issuance of train orders and work authorities including the regulatory requirements of trans- mission and record. Record keeping is done internally in the computer. Tliis type of operation enables one dispatcher to efficiently handle a larger territory. Train sheet information can be automatically printed, relieving the dispatcher of maintaining a hand written sheet. Other reports as well as the train sheet infor- mation may also be in the form of a CRT output. 5.0 ECONOMICS The actual costs associated with an improved installation depend on a number of variables. Not all variables will necessarily be included in an analysis of every alternative but each should be considered and evaluated. Some represent added costs and other savings. The variables to be considered when making a total eco- nomic study of the proposed improved system are: 5.1 Payroll 5.1.1 Operating Employees Train crew — road hours may be reduced by improved over tire road time. — terminal time may be reduced by ability to dispatch trains faster because of better control. 5.1.2 Non-operating Employees Dispatchers — numbers may be reduced by consohdation of territories. Operators — similar to above and line operators become redundant with C.T.C. Radio Control Systems and Automatic Train Operation. 54 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association Signal Maintainers — number of maintainers may increase because of added signal plant. 5.2 Train Time Improved performance will reduce origin to destination time: — Train Hours — reduced standing time at meets and passes. — improvement in running time through elimination of yard limits and flag protection when eliminating a train order system. — improvement in time through power and spring switches. — Ton Miles/ Train Hour — from above improvements. — Train Miles — may be reduced due to increased tonnage of trains through improved performance. — Train Speed — average speed increased. — Crew Wages — automatic audit for correct crew claims. 5.3 Motive Power Reduced locomotive requirements through — reduced train miles — reduced locomotive time 5.4 Cabooses Reduction possible similar to motive power. 5.5 Train Stops Cost of stopping a train — should be fewer stops with Train Control Systems through improved per- formance. Train Order Systems usually requires 2 extra-slow-speed stops per meet. — Fuel — saving due to reduced standing time as well as reduced number of stops. — Brake Shoes — reduction in brake shoe wear through elimina- tion of stops and slowdowns. — Wear on rails and track \ — Wear on wheels j — Wear on rolling stock — Damage to lading — Commercial value of delay \ — Freight train delay hour / 5.6 Material and Supplies Offices and existing systems vs. proposed systems. Reduction in need for offices with accompanying supplies, etc. 5.7 Taxes — Affected by changes in plant and buildings where directly assessed. 5.8 Maintenance — Track — decrease if result is retirement of trackage and turnouts. — Signals — additional costs as a result of new installations. — Motive Power — affected by reduction in number of locomotives. — Other — buildings reduced as need for operators reduced including light, heat, power, etc. — also affects living accommodations wherever applicable. Small Economics of S ystems for Control of Train Operation 55 5.9 Car Time It is reasonable to expect that the same amount of traffic can be moved at the expense of fewer car hours due to improved over-the-road time. This will prolong the necessity of increasing car inventory and a reduction in per diem payments on foreign cars may be achieved. 5.10 Depreciation — Value of increased plant vs. existing plant. 5.11 Safety — Reduction in number of accidents. — Savings estimated on basis of statistics of signalled vs. non-signalled ti'ack. 5.12 Livestment — Traffic control systems usually result in reduction in double track by installa- tion of signal control system. — Deferment of construction of D.T. — Motive Power — Cars )■ See separate items —Other 5.13 Plarmed Expenditures — Consider whetlier changes in plant or operation would have been made witliout the advent of the train conti'ol system. 5.14 Intangibles — On-time performance — Commercial and competitive aspects — Other — productivity, flexibility The installation of control systems does not usually produce a liigh economic rate of return from direct benefits. Apart from the safety aspect, the prime reason for the installation of a more sophisticated control system is to obtain a greater through-put of trains over basically the same plant. When all factors are taken into account, including those difficult to quantify, e.g., service, reliabihty, safety, reduc- tion of congestion and postponement of capital growth, the actual rate of return could be high. This provision for future growth should be recognized in the economic analysis by projections of traffic and the influence on some of the principal items of investment. 6.0 DEFINITIONS OF SYSTEMS AND ASSOCIATED PLANT 6.1 Interlocking An anangement of signals and signal appliances so interconnected that their movements must succeed each other in proper sequence for which interlocking rules are in effect. It may be operated manually or automatically. 6.2 Interlocking — Automatic An arrangement of signals, with or without other signal appliances, which functions through the exercise of inherent powers as distinguished from those whose functions are controlled manually, and which are so interconnected by means of electric circuits that their movements must succeed each other in proper sequence. Train movements over all routes are governed by signal indication. 56 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association 6.3 Interlocking — Manual An arrangement of signals and signal appliances operated from an interlocking machine and so interconnected by means of mechanical and/or electric locking that their movements must succeed each other in proper sequence. Train movements over all routes are governed by signal indication. 6.4 System, Absolute Permissive Block A term used for an automatic block signal system on a track signalled in botli directions. For opposing movements the block is from siding to siding and the signals governing entrance to this block indicate Stop. For following movements the section bet\veen sidings is divided into two or more blocks and train movements into these blocks, except tlie first one, are governed by intermediate signals usually displaying Stop; then Proceed as their most restrictive indication. 6.5 System, Automatic Block Signal A series of consecutive blocks governed by block signals, cab signals, or both, actuated by a train, or engine, or by certain conditions affecting the use of a block. (Standard Code.) 6.6 System, Automatic Cab Signal A system which provides for the automatic operation of signals located in the engineman's compartment. 6.7 System, Automatic Train Control A system so arranged that its operation will automatically result in the foUowdng: A full service application of the brakes which will continue either until the train is brought to a stop, or, under control of the engineman, its speed is reduced to a predetermined rate. When operating under a speed restriction, an application of the brakes when the speed of the train exceeds the predetermined rate and which will continue until the speed is reduced to that rate. D.O.T. 236.825. 6.8 System, Automatic Train Stop A system so arranged that its operation will automatically result in the appli- cation of tlie brakes until the train has been brought to a stop. D.O.T. 236.826. 6.9 System, Block A series of consecutive blocks. 6.10 System, Block Signal A method of governing the movement of trains into or within one or more blocks by block signals or cab signals. D.O.T. 236.827. 6.11 Control, Centralized Traffic A term applied to a system of railroad operation by means of which the move- ment of trains over routes and through blocks on a designated section of track or tracks is directed by block signals controlled from a designated point whose indi- cations supersede the superiority of trains for both opposing and following movements without requiring the use of train orders. 6.12 System, Controlled Manual Block A series of consecutive blocks governed by block signals, controlled by con- tinuous track circuits, operated manually upon information by telegraph, telephone Economics of Systems for Control of Train Operation 57 or other means of communication and so constructed as to require the cooperation of the signalmen at both ends of the block to display a Clear or a Permissive block signal authorizing the use of the block. 6.13 System, Manual Block Signal A block or a series of consecutive blocks, governed by block signals operated manually, upon information transmitted by telegraph, telephone or other means of commmaication (Standard Code). 6.14 System, Traffic Control A block signal system imder which train movements are authorized by block signals whose indications supersede the superiority of trains for both oi^posing and following movements on the same track. D.O.T. 236.828. 6.15 Track, Main A track other than an auxiliary track extending through yards and between stations, upon which trains are operated by timetable or train order, or botli, or the use of which is governed by block signals (Standard Code). 6.16 Siding A track auxiliary to the main track for meeting or passing trains (Standard Code). Advance Report of Committee 4 — Rail Report on Assignment 5 Rail Research and Development W. J. Cruse (cliainnan, subcommittee), B. G. Anderson, R. M. Brown, D. Dany- LUK, A. R. DeRosa, G. H. Geigeh, R. E. Haacke, W. H. Huffman, T. B. HUTCHESON, H. F. LONGHELT, W. S. LoVELACE, A. B. MeRRITT, Jr., J. L. Merritt, C. O. Penney, J. M. Rankin, R. K. Steele, D. H. Stone, M. J. WiSNOWSKI. Your committee presents as information the following report evaluating Japanese rail received from the Norfolk & Western Railway. The authors of the report are G. L. Leadley, research metallurgist, and L. D. Fleming, assistant metallurgist, Technical Center, Research and Test Department, Association of American Railroads. Evaluation of Japanese Rail Received from the Norfolk & Western Railway Company By G. L. LEADLEY and L. D. FLEMING ABSTRACT The Association of American Railroads obtained samples of 136 lb/yd rail produced by the Nippon Steel Company to AREA specifications from the Norfolk & Western Railway Company as part of its ongoing evaluation of domestic and foreign rail. This rail is of particular interest in view of the unconventional double- heat rolling system used during its fabrication to obtain low residual hydrogen levels without control-cooling the finished rail. Data gathered during an extensive metallurgical investigation showed that tliis material meets all existing AREA specifications and compares favorably witli previ- ously tested rail in regards to both metallurgical and physical properties. INTRODUCTION As part of the Association of American Railroads' continuing practice of evalu- ating rails manufactured from improved alloys or by unconventional methods, sc;ctions of 136 lb/yd rail produced by the Nippon Steel Corporation of Japan were obtained from the Norfolk & Western Railway Company during July 1975. The subject rails were produced during the latter part of 1974 in accordance with the applicable AREA specification except that a double-heat rolling system was used to control the hydrogen le\el in the final product. Under this system billets rolled from ingots arc allowed to cool gradiially to diffuse out residual hydrogen and are then reheated before the final rolling. According to tlie steel company, the combined effect of the slow cooling and reheating on the billets is to consistently produce steel with residual hydrogen in the 0.7-1.5 ppm range and eliminate the need for control-cooling of the finished rails. The Norfolk & Western has installed approximately 28 miles of Nippon Steel rail in continuous welded sections between Fostoria and Bellevue, Ohio. 59 II ul. 650 60 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The investigation described herein was undertaken as an Association of Ameri- can Railroads initiated project and all related costs were borne by that organization. The laboratory work was conducted at the direction of co-author, G. L. Leadley, research metallurgist, with the assistance of D. H. Stone, manager-metallurgy, H. B. Johnson, assistant metallurgist and co-author, L. D. Fleming, assistant metallurgist. The cooperation of L. A. Durham, Jr., chief engineer of the Norfolk & Western in obtaining the rail samples is gratefully acknowledged. DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL The sample rail. No. 28528-B-5, was received in three 6-ft sections. The rail appeared unused; however, little specific information was available on the rail's history. DESCRIPTION OF TESTS I. Mechanical Tests 1. Rolling Load (Cradle Type) This test is designed to indicate the resistance of the rail head to shelling. A diagram showing the loading arrangement of tlie cradle type rolling load machine is shown in Fig. 1. In this test, a 14/4-in. (0.375-m) long section of the rail is gradually rotated about its longitudinal axis 13° from the vertical and back again as the wheel, applying a load of 50,000 lb (222 kN), moves repeatedly over a 7-in. (0.178-m) path on the rail head. The base of the rail is seated on a flat plate, so there is no bending moment. The test is continued until 5,000,000 cycles of the wheel have been completed. The rail is removed from the machine periodically and checked utrasonically to determine if shelling has been initiated. This test was run on two sections of the rail specimen. 2. Drop Test The drop test was conducted in accordance with AREA Specification 4—2-3. A 6-ft section of the rail was placed head-up on supports spaced 48 in. (1.22 m) apart. A 2000-lb (907-kg) tup was dropped from a height of 22 ft (6.71 m) to generate an impact energy of 44,000 ft-lb (59,700 J). The AREA specification states that the rail must withstand one such drop witliout fracture. Five drops were performed on the specimen. 3. Slow Bend Test A 6-ft rail section was placed head-up on supports 48 in. (1.22 m) apart with a two-point loading applied 6 in. (0.152 m) on each side of a center line drawn midway between the supports. The rail head is subjected to compressive stress in the longitudinal direction and the base is subjected to tensile stress with this loading arrangement. The load was measured at each 0.1 in. (25.4 mm) increment of deflection. 4. Tensile Tests Two ASTM standard 0.505-in. -diameter tensile specimens were taken from the rail head at positions corresponding to the mean location of the ingot. The tensile tests were made on an MTS tensile/fatigue machine with a 50,000 lb Evaluation of Japanese Rail 61 (222 kN) capacity. The ultimate strength, yield strength, reduction of cross sectional area, elongation and BUN were; determined for each specimi'n. The yield strength was determined using a 0.2 percent oll'set on the stress-strain curve. 5. Hardness Survey A hardness survey was made over a transverse section of the rail specimen. The Brinell indentations were made using a 30()0-kg load. 6. Instrumented Impact Tests These tests were performed to determine the fracture toughness characteristics of the rail. Charpy "V" notch specimens of standard dimensions were fabricated from plates cut from the rail head. The axis of diese specimens oriented in the longitudinal or running direction of the rail with the notches running in the transverse or lateral direction. Each specimen was fatigued to form a crack at the base of the notch. The crack was allowed to extend in the transverse plane of die Charpy specimen until the combined depth of the notch and crack was 30% of the thickness of the specimen. Instrumented impact tests were then performed at temperatures from — 50 F (—46 C) to 400 F (204 C). The ultimate impact load and energy to failure were recorded for computation of the Ki,i and energy per unit area for each specimen. 7. Chemical Analijsis A specimen for chemical analysis was cut from a transverse section at a position in die rail head corresponding to the mean ingot location. The analysis was performed by an outside organization. The results were then compared to die chemical com- position specified in the AREA Manual, Section 4-2-1. 8. Macroscopic Metallurgical Examination A transverse section through the rail and a horizontal trans\erse section cut Is in ( 0.022 m ) below the running surface were both etched in hot HCl-50% aqueous solution to reveal segregation patterns and any evidence of hot-tears and shatter cracks. The transverse section on which the Brinell hardness measurements were made was etched in 10% nital to reveal any heat-affected regions. 9. Metallographic Examinations Transverse and longitudinal sections from the rail head were etched in 2% nital to reveal the microstructure. 10. Quantitative Microclcanliness Metallographic specimens were examined unetched to determine the average inclusion content by volume and parameters descriptive of particle spacing, dis- tribution and geometry. An Omnicon Image Analysis System was used to perform the measurements and the data were processed and evaluated for statistical signifi- cance by computer. The measurements made on each field were the total area of inclusions, the total projected length of the inclusions and the total number of particles. The fields were magnified to X660 on the Onmieon television screen. The contrast threshold of the machine was set at a fixed potential so that the system would distinguish the lighter sulfide inclusions content in this steel as well 62 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association as the darker oxides and silicates. The parameters, therefore, represent the combined results for all types of inclusions observed. The fields of view were selected from the specimen plane by microscope stage translations performed in a fixed scanning pattern. Each field had an area of 9.1 X 10-' cm-. The measuring procedure was repeated until the computer reported that the true specimen inclusion content was within at least 20% of tlie calculated mean (%A) for all fields observed at a 95% level of confidence. This generally resulted in 200 to 300 fields being measured per specimen. The microcleanliness specimens were taken from Charpy bars broken in previ- ously performed impact tests. To acquire information on the three dimensional geometry of the particles, a specimen with a longitudinal plane of polish was cut from a position on the Charpy bar adjacent to the position from which a specimen with a transverse plane of polish was taken. A pair of these specimens was obtained from both ends of the three Charpy bars to determine how much fluctuation in inclusion content and geometry occurred from one position to another in tlie rail head. RESULTS OF TESTS 1. Rolling Load (Cradle Type) One of the two rail sections completed the full 5,000,000 cycle run-out without failure. In tlie second specimen, shelling was detected after 3,700,000 cycles. The shell in this rail developed 0.3 in. (0.76 cm) below the running surface and origi- nated along a line 0.5 in. (1.27 cm) from the worn side of the rail head. The average number of cycles required to develop a shell in standard carbon rail has been determined to be 1,402,493 cycles at 50,000 lb (222 kN). This was calculated from the results of 33 cradle-type rolling-load tests on standard carbon rails (all sections) as reported in tlie AREA Proceedings from the years 1949 through 1965. 2. Drop Test The rail specimen subjected to the drop test did not fail until the third impact. This exceeds the requirements of the AREA Specification. 3. Slow Bend Test The rail specimen was deflected a full 5 in. (0.127 m) without failure when the test was discontinued. The following data were derived from tlie test: Maximum Load 534,000 lb (2375 kN) Total Energy of Deflection 181,042 ft-lb ( 245 kj) Modulus of Rupture 171,032 psi (1179 MPa) 4. Tensile Tests The data on physical properties derived from the tensile tests are given in Table I along with the average properties of carbon steel rail for reference. 5. Hardness Survey The Brinell hardness numbers and corresponding indentations are shown on the light etched transverse rail section in Fig. 2. 6. Instrumented Impact Tests The Kid and Energy per Area (W/A) data are given in Table II for each test temperature. The Kid versus temperature curve plotted from these data is shown Evaluation of Japanese Rail 63 in Fig. 3. The W/A versus temperature ciurve is shown in Fig. 4. The results of these tests are comparable to those for other carbon steel rails. A Kic value (static fracture toughness) for tlie rail at room temperature was determined from testing a standard /i-in-tliick compact tension specimen in accord- ance with ASTM E 399. A value of 40.5 ksi-in.^'" (44.6 MPa-m^^^) was computed from the test data. The Km value (dynamic fracture toughness) was 21 ksi-in.^'^ (23 MPa-m^'^) at room temperature as shown on the graph of Fig. 3. The difference between the Km and Kic values is not unusual. 7. Chemical Analysis The results of the chemical analysis are given in Table III together with the AREA specified composition ranges. All elements covered in the specifications were within the required ranges of composition for this real steel. 8. Macroscopic Examination The transverse specimen etched in the hot HCl solution is shown in Fig. 5 and the horizontal longitudinal specimen is shown in Fig. 6. The segregation pat- terns appeared normal and there was no evidence of hot-tears or shatter-cracks. The nital-etched transverse section on which the Brinell indentations were made (Fig. 2) showed no heat-affected zones. 9. Metallo graphic Examination The photomicrographs of Figs. 7 and 8 show the microstructure observed in transverse and longitudinal planes of polish, respectively. The pearlite colonies are essentially equiaxed in botli orientations with a trace amount free ferrite observed in the grain boundaries at high magnification. The size of the pearlite colonies corresponds to an ASTM grain size of 2J2 (ASTM Designation: E 112, Plate I). 10. Quantitative Microcleanliness The data on inclusion content of tlie microcleanliness specimens examined are shown in Table IV. The average inclusion content for all specimens is 0.194% by volimie. This is comparable to other carbon rail steels so far examined using tlie new quantitative image analysis system. The parameters given in Table IV are primarily for future reference in evaluat- ing the geometry and quantity of inclusions in rail steels. CONCLUSIONS The rail steel examined meets all existing AREA material and mechanical specifications and appeared to be of good general quality. 64 Bulletin 659 — ^American Railway Engineering Association w EH U3 H F^ cn w W M hJ P M 1^ C/5 w 2 H Pn W o Fh w K J CU :^ CQ o <; hJ Di E^ < fc H D CO W >H 2 •X. M Qa Pi w EH W D w rH w rH Q) QJ C • C ^ •H u 2 Sh fO CQ •H -p 03 ^-, Cno\o| C — - iH W C o •H m -P (D o u ,— , D <: cAO T3 ■ — ' a) 4-1 Ct^ -p rp fd c Q^ OJ s ^-1 p t/) 13 1— 1 H (U W •rH CU >H x: ■p tXi fO c c^ (U s !h p w Q) r-\ •H H m C/5 c CXi 0) Eh 0) c rH QJ •H e m •H c o (y (U H en in 0). CO CO a. OJ Sh •H :=> p a vh 0) o •rH Vh P Ou (d Vh rH (d fd Qj O b •H O CO C) >i j:: u a. m aj tj^ 1 fO u iH •rH > fd (0 Jh V <-\ LD Q) r^ 0) 00 H-) CO tn c (d o CUJ3 Vh •. fd i-H c; ^ t:! OJ j-i e fd 3 15 nH c o fd > P CO CO tn W C Di •H 'a CM (U ro 0) rH u c u C) 0^ CO < p w CO ex QJ < -p e p () u QJ MH u c tfl QJ H-) !h <-\ (D 3 M-( CO (U Q) K M * Evaluation of Japanese Rail 65 TABLE TI DATA FROM INSTRUMENTED IMPACT TESTS Tempera OF ture Oc ^^Id Ksi-in ^ 1^ MPa-m ^ Energy/Aj Ft-lb/in^ rea kj/m^ -50 -46 17.0 17.0 18.7 18.7 12.7 12.5 26.7 26.3 -18 17.0 19.5 18. 7 21.4 12.5 U.6 26. 3 24. 4 75 24 17.8 2 3.9 19.6 26.3 17.4 20.7 3 6.6 43.5 150 66 27.5 24.4 30.2 26.8 2 3.5 26.7 49.4 56. 1 200 93 29. 2 30.0 32.1 33.0 38.0 36.8 79.9 7 7. 3 250* 12 1 36.2 38.0 39.8 41.8 52. 2 55.0 109.7 115.6 300* 149 47.0 46.9 51. 6 51. 5 69. 3 74. 1 145.6 155.2 400* 204 59.6 54.9 65. 5 60.3 130. 1 105.8 273.4 2 2 2.3 *At these temperatures sufficient general yielding occurred to invalidate the Kj^^ results. 66 Bulletin 659 — American Railway Engineering Association TABLE III RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Test AREA Specification Results Requirements* Element (%) (%) Carbon 0.76 0.69-0.82 Manganese 0. 84 0.70-1.00 Phosphorus 0.009 0.04 max. Sulfur 0.010 0.05 max. Silicon 0.20 0.10-0.25 Nickel <0.01 Chromium 0.02 Molybdenum < 0.01 Copper 0.01 *From AREA Manual for Railway Engineering , Section 4-2-1 , para. 3.1. Evaluation of Japanese Rail 67 TABLE IV AVERAGED PARAMETERS FOR NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS FROM QUANTITATIVE MICROCLEANLINESS* Charpy Specimen Inclusion Mean** Mean** Moan Tnterpart iclo Specimen End Volume % Free Path Intercept Spacing (Microns) Width (Microns) (Microns) 1 A B .211 .186 2300 2760 4.83 5.14 38.21 52.75 2 A B .210 .224 2720 2610 5.68 5.74 . 54.35 53.31 3 A B .174 .157 3470 3350 6.05 5.26 50.00 52.37 Averages for rail .194 from above results. ♦Measurements tal CONSULTING ENGINEERS SIGNALS • COf,WUNICATIONS '.AUTOMATION • ELECTRIFICATION RAILROADS • RAIL TRANSIT SUITE 1512 PIONEER BUILDING ST, TAUL, MINNESOTA-. 55101 (612) 222 2787 HOWARD J. BELLOWS ESTIMATING CONSULTANT FOR TRACKWORK Railroadt & Rapid Transit Sysfvms 725 DALRYMPLE ROAD Apt. 8-E ATLANTA, GA. 30328 404-393-0390 WHITMAN, REQUARDT & ASSOCIATES Engineers Consultants Complete Engineering Services BALTIMORE, MARYLAND 74-4 Directory of Consulting Engineers K-^ HARRINGTON & CORTELYOU, INC. Consulting Engineers 1004 Baltimore, Kansas City, Mo. 64105 Telephone: 816-421-6386 RAILWAY AND HIGHWAY • FIXED AND MOVABLE BRIDGES • • Condition Inspections • Investigations & Reports • Design, Construction Plans • Contract Documents • Construction Supervision • Cost Negotiations Railroads • Rapid Transit Electric Traction Power Signals and Train Control Communications • Substations Operations Analysis and Simulation Power Generation • Urban Planning (Bibbs a Hill, inc. ENGINEERS, DESIGNERS, CONSTRUCTORS 393 Seventh Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10001 A Subsidiary of Dravo Corporation CENTEC CENTRAL TECHNOLOGY, INC Railroad Consultants OPERATION ENGINEERING RESEARCH ROUTE LOCATION MANAGEMENT CONSTRUCTION Dulles International Airport (703) 471-7070 P.O. Box 17411 Cable: CENTEC Woshington, D.C. 20041 Telex: 89-9493 WOLCHUK and MAYRBAURl CONSULTING ENGINEERS RAILWAY AND HIGHWAY BRIDGES SPECIAL STRUCTURES DESIGN— INVESTIGATIONS— REPORTS 432 PARK AVE. S., NEW YORK, NY 1 001 6 (212) 689-0220 w RALPH WHITEHEAD 8. ASSOaATES Consiitng Enc^ieers • Charfcitte Atlanta P.O. Box 4301 Charlotte, N.C. 28204 Telephone 704-372-1885 BRIDGES • HIGHWAYS • RAILROADS • RAIL & BUS TRANSIT • AIRPORTS • BUILDINGS BAKKE KOPP SALLOUi McFARLIN.INC. CONSULTING ENGINEERS Bridges Special & Heavy Structures Investigations & Reports 7505 WEST HIGHWAY SEVEN ST. LOUIS PARK, MINNESOTA 55426 (612)933-8880 TRASCO Track Skates Preferred by skatemen Light Tough Balanced hand hold No curl tongue TRACK SPECIALTIES COMPANY Box 729 Westport , Conn . RECEIVED FEB 8 1977 t. STALLMEVER American Railway Engineering Association— Bulletin Bulletin 660 November^December 1976 Proceedings Volume 78* CONTENTS PART I— MANUAL RECOMMENDATIONS Sfeel Structures (15) - 75 Scales (34) 96 Buildings (6) 97 Concrete Structures and Foundations (8) 102 Roadway and Ballast (1) 110 Concrete Ties 133 Electrical Energy Utilization (33) 139 PART 2— REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Highways (9) 235 Yards and Terminals (14) 253 DISCUSSION Rail Wear end Corrugation Studies 265 Directory of Consulting Engineers 272—1 'Proceedings Volume 78 (1977) will ooniist of ABEA BuUetiiu 059. September- October 1976; 660. November-December 1976; 661, January-February 1977; and 663, Jun»-Jidv 1977 (Teobaical Conference Report issne). Blue-oovend Bulletin 602, Apdl- May 1B77 (tbe Directory issue), is not a part of the Annual Proceedings of the Aasodation. BOARD OF DIRECTION 1976-1977 President John Fox, Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, Windsor Station, Montreal, PQ H3C 3E4 Vice Presidents B. J. WoRLEY, Vice President — Chief Enpneer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606 W. S. AuTREY, Chief Engineer, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, 80 E. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60604 Past Presidents R. F. Bush, Chief Engineer — Special Projects, Consolidated Rail Corporation, 6 Pear Center Plaza, Room 1640, Philadelphia. PA 19104 J. T. Waso, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, 500 Water St., Jacksonville, FL 32202 Directors P. L. Montgomery, Manager Engineering Systems, Norfolk & Western Railway, 8 N. Jefferson St., Roanoke, VA 24042 E. C. HoNATH, Assistant General Manager Engineering, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, 900 Polk St., .\marillo, TX 79171 Mike Roxjgas, Chief Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, P. O. Box 471, Green- ville, PA 16125 J. W. DeVallk, Chief Engineer Bridges, Southern Railway System, 99 Spring St., S. W.. Atlanta, GA 30303 G. A, Van de Water, Chief Engineer, Canadian National Railways, P. O. Bojt 8100, Montreal, PQ H3C 3N4 E. H. Waring, Chief Engineer, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, P. O. Box 5482, Denver, CO 80217 Wk. Gxavzn, General Manager, Grand Trunk Western Railroad, 131 W. Lafayette Blvd., Detroit, MI 48226 R. M. Brown, Chief Engineer, Union Pacific Railroad, 1416 Dodge St., Omaha, NE 68179 J. W. Brent, Chief Engineer, Chessie System, P. O. Box 1800, Huntington, WV 2S718 L. F. Currier. Engineer — Structures, Louisville & Nashville Railroad, P. O. Box 1198, LouisviUe, KY 40201 T. L. Fuller, Engineer of Bridges, Southern Pacific Transportation Company, One Market St., San Francisco, CA 94105 J. A. Barnes, As.sistant Vice President & Chief Engineer, Chicago & North Western Transportation Company, SCO \V. Madison St., Chicago, IL 60606 Treasurer A. B. HnxMAN, Jr., Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago, 6900 S. Central Ave., Chicago, IL 60638 Executive Director Earl W. Hodgkins, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605 Assistant to Executive Director N. V. Engman, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605 Assistant to Executive Director D. F. Fredley, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605 PubHsh 100' 150,000 r 100' > L > 75' 200,000 75' > L > 50' 500,000 50' > L > 30' 2,000,000 30' > L > 2,000,000 Classification II Truss web members and their connections, except as listed in Classification III. Two tracks loaded One track loaded 200,000 500,000 500,000 Classification III Two tracks Floorbeams and their connections; or truss loaded hangers and sub -diagonals, which carry One track floorbeam reactions only, and their connec- loaded tions. > 2,000,000 Note: Tables 1.3.13A and B are based on bridges designed for E 80 loading. For the procedure to be used for a design loading other than E 80, see the Com- mentary, Article 9.1.3.13, Step 5. Table 1.3.13B Stress Category 150,000 Allowable Fatigue Stress Range — Snfat (ksi) for No. of Constant-Stress Cycles, N 200,000 500,000 2,000,000 > 2,000,000 A 53 48 36 24 24 B 40 36 27 18 16 C 28 26 19 13 10 12V D 24 22 16 10 7 E 19 17 12 8 5 F 14 13 12 9 8 For transverse stiffener welds on webs or flanges. Manual Recommendations 79 Table 1.3. 13C General Condition Situation Stress Cafcgorij Illustrative Kind of (See Example No. Stress Table (See Fig. Range 1.3.13B) 1.3.13) Plain material Base metal with rolled or cleaned surfaces. Flame cut edges with ANSI smoothness of 1000 or less T or Rev. 1, 2 Built-up Base metal and weld metal in members members without attachments, built-up of plates or shapes connected by continuous full or partial penetration groove welds or by continuous fillet welds parallel to the direction of applied stress T or Rev. 3, 4, 5, 7 Calculated flexural stress at toe of trans- T or Rev. verse stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges Base metal at end of partial length T or Rev. welded cover plates having square or tapered ends, with or without welds across the ends Groove welds Base metal and weld metal at transverse full penetration groove welded splices of rolled and welded sections having similar profiles when welds are ground flush, and weld soundness verified by NDI T or Rev. Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to transverse full penetration groove welded splices at transitions in width or thickness, with welds ground to provide slopes no steeper than 1 to 2-1/2, with grinding in the direction of applied stress, and weld soundess verified by NDI T or Rev. 10, 11 Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent T or Rev. to full penetration groove welded splices, with or without transitions having slopes no greater than 1 to 2-1/2 when re- inforcement is not removed C 8, 9, 10, 11 Base metal at details attached by groove welds subject to transverse and/or longi- tudinal loading when the detail length L, parallel to the line of stress, is be- tween 2 in. and 12 times the plate thick- ness, but less than 4 in. T or Rev. D 12, 13 Base metal at details attached by groove welds subject to transverse and/or longi- tudinal loading when the detail length L is greater than 12 times the plate thickness or greater than 4 in. T or Rev. E 12, 13 Base metal at ends of details attached by groove welds subjected to transverse and/or longitudinal loading regardless of detail length: (a) When provided with 24 in. or more T or Rev. B 18 transition radius and weld end ground smooth (b) When provided with 6 in. or more T or Rev. C 18 transition radius and weld end ground smooth (c) When provided with 2 in. or more T or Rev. D 18 transition radius and weld end ground smooth 80 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association TaHLE 1.3.13C (CONT. General Condition Situatiun Kind of Stress Range Stress Category (See Table 1.3.13B) Illustrative Example No. (Sec Fig. 1.3.13) Fillet welded Base metal at intermittent fillet welds connections parallel to direction of stress T or Rev. Mechanically fastened connections Base metal adjacent to fillet welded at- tachments with length L in direction of stress less than 2 in. and stud-type shear connectors T or Rev. Base metal adjacent to fillet welded at- tachments (or details) with length L in direction of stress between 2 in. and 12 times the plate thickness but less than 4 in. T or Rev. Bcise metal adjacent to fillet welded at- tachments {or details) with length L in direction of stress greater than 12 times the plate thickness or greater than 4 in. T or Rev. Base metal at gross section of high- strength bolted slip resistant connec- tions, except axially loaded joints which induce out-of-iilane bending in connected material T or Rev. Base metal at net section of riveted con- nections or bolted connections not cov- ered above T or Rev. B 14, 1.5, 16 13, 14, 15 13, 15 Base metal at details attached by fillet welds regardless of length in direction of stress: (a) When provided with 24 in. or more T or Rev. B 18 transition radius and weld end ground smooth (b) When provided with 6 in. or greater T or Rev. C 18 transition radius and \\eld end ground smooth (c) When provided with 2 in. or greater T or Rev. D 18 transition radius and weld end ground smooth 17 17 Fillet Welds Shear stress on throat of fillet welds Shear 8a Revise Article 1.3.14.3 on page 15-1-15 to read as follows: 1.3.14.3 Unit stresses for combinations of loads or wind forces only. (a) Members subject to stresses resulting from dead load, live load, impact and centrifugal force shall be designed so that the maximum unit stresses do not exceed the basic allowable unit stresses of Section 1.4, and the stress range does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range of Art. 1.3.13. (b) The basic allowable unit stresses of Section 1.4 shall be used in the pro- portioning of members subject to stresses resulting from wind force only, as specified in Art. 1.3.8. (c) Members, except floorbeam hangers, which are subject to stresses resulting from lateral forces, other than centrifugal force, and/or longitudinal force may be proportioned for unit stresses 25 percent greater tlian those pemiitted by (a), but the section of the member shall not be less than that required to meet the provisions of (a) or (b) alone. Revise Article 1.3.16 on page 15-1-15 and 15-1-16 to read as follows: Manual Recommendations 81 Squore End, Tapcr-cd o Wid«f iNon Flange (.^°»'5%5; •Ocry E *■ '=°'« -^c+^l) : --^ R>24;n <'2in. (Seelll.Exs.a: VJafe:The >ield end mus\ be ground smoo+h o,V the +rQns\hon radius . Fig. 1.3.13 — Illustrative examples. 82 Bulletin 660 — .\merican Railway Engineering Association 1.3.16 Proportioning of Truss Web Members (a) Web members and tlieir connections shall be proportioned such that (1) an increase in the specified live load that will increase the total unit stress in the most highly stressed chord by one-tliird will produce total unit stresses in the web members and their connections not greater than one-and-one-third times the allow- able unit stresses, and (2) they will meet the fatigue requirements of Article 1.3.13 using these increased unit stresses. Revise Article 1.5.12 (a) on page 15-1-21 to read as follows: (a) Rivets and high-strength bolts in the same connection plane may be con- sidered as sharing the stress. When such a connection plane is subjected to fatigue conditions, the requirements of Art. 1.3.13 applicable to rivets shall be satisfied for both tj-pes of fasteners. Revise Article 1.10.1 (b) on page 15-1-30 to read as follows: (b) When butt joints subject to axial or flexural tensile stress, or to flexural compressive stress, are used to join material of different widths, tliere shall be a common longitucUnal axis of symmetry, and there shall be smooth transition between offset edges at a slope of not greater than 1 in 2/2 witli the edge of either part. Delete Article 1.10.3 on page 1.5-1-30. Renumber Article 1.10.4 to 1.10.3. Renvunber Article 1.10.5 to 1.10.4 and revise to read as follows: 1.10.4 Welded Attachments (a) Where stiffeners, brackets, gussets, clips, or other detail material are welded to members or parts subjected to fatigue conditions, the stress range in base material adjacent to the welds shall not exceed that permitted by Art. 1.3.13. Revise Section 2.1 on page 15-2-2 to read as follows: 2.1 GENERAL (a) The following should be considered in the use of high-strength steels: 1. The modulus of elasticity of high-strengtli steels is the same as that of ASTM A 36 steel. 2. The deflection hmitations of Art. 1.2.4, Art. 5.1.4, Art. 5.2.3 and Art. 5.3.5 must be maintained. 3. The fatigue strength of liigh-strength steels in structural applications is not materially greater than tiiat of ASTM A 36 steel; accordingly, the allowable stiess ranges are identical for all types of steel, as given in Art. 1.3.13. Delete entire present Article 2.3.1 on pages 15-2-3 through 15-2-6 and insert the following: 2.3.1 Fatigue (a) Members and connections subjected to repeated fluctuations of stress shall meet the fatigue requirements of Article 1.3.13. Revise Article 2.3.2.3 on page 15-2-7 to read as follows: Manual Recommendations 83 2.3.2.3 Unit stresses for combinations of loads or wind forces only. (a) Members subject to stresses resulting from dead load, live load, impact and centrifugal force shall be designed so that the maximum unit stresses do not exceed the basic allowable unit stresses of Section 2.4, and the stress range does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range of Art. 1.3.13. (b) The basic allowable unit stresses of Section 2.4 shall be used in the pro- portioning of members subject to stresses resulting from wind force only, as specified in Art. 1.3.8. (c) Members, except floorbeam hangers, which are subject to stresses resulting from lateral forces, other than centrifugal force, and/or longitudinal force may be proportioned for unit stresses 25 percent greater than those permitted by (a), but the section of the member shall not be less than that reqiured to meet the provisions of (a) or (b) alone. (d) Wliere high-strength steel is used for floorbeam hangers, or in floor sys- tems, the basic allowable unit stresses of Section 1.4, and the fatigue rules of Art. 1.3.13, shall be used in proportioning such members. Revise Article 2.3.3 on page 15-2-7 to read as follows: 2.3.3 Proportioning Web Members (a) Web members and their connections shall be jDroportioned such tliat (1) an increase in the specified live load that will increase the total unit stress in the most highly stressed chord by one-third will produce total unit stresses in the web members and their connections not greater than one-and-one-third times the allow- able unit stresses, and (2) they will meet the fatigue requirements of Article 1.3.13 using these increased units stresses. Delete entire Section 2.8 on pages 15-2-13 and 15-2-14. Revise Article 6.3.4 on page 15-6-16 to read as follows: 6.3.4 Fatigue (a) Where the design stress is afl;ected by the movement of the span, the allowable stress range shall be determined from Art. 1.3.13 using the applicable number of stress cycles. Revise Article 6.5.36.10 on page 15-6-43 as follows: Delete 6.5.36.10 (b). Redesignate 6.5.36.10 (c) as 6.5.36.10 (b). Delete entire present Article 9.1.3.13 and 9.2.3.1 on pages 15-9-5 through 15-9-8 and insert the following: 9.1.3.13 and 9.2.3.1 Fatigue Members subjected to repeated applications of load under certain conditions will fail at a lower unit stress than they would under a single application of load. Such failures are commonly referred to as fatigue failures. All editions of tliese specifications between 1910 and 1969, inch, have required that members subject to reversal of stress (whether axial, bending or shearing) during the passage of the live load shall be proportioned as follows: 84 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Determine the maximum stress of one sign and the maximum stress of the opposite sign and increase each by 50 percent of the smaller; proportion the member to satisfy each stress so increased; and proportion the connection for the sum of the maximum stresses. Tests on small- and medium-size laboratory specimens and tests on full-size structiu"es have shown that under some conditions, repeated loadings will reduce the life of members and their connections even if all stresses are tensile. Thus, re\ersal of stress is not necessary- to cause failures from fatigue. The Specifications for Welded Highway and Railway Bridges (now titled the Structural Welding Code Dl.l) of the American Welding Society (AWS) has always recognized this fact and has included requirements for modifying the allowable design unit stresses for certain types of welded members and their connections. Tests ( 6 ) , ( 7 ) have also shown that riveted or bolted members and connections are similarly affected when there is no reversal. The fatigue fonnulas in Parts 1 and 2, 1969 edition of these specifications, were based on Uie formulas in AASHO (now known as AASHTO) Interim Specifi- cations, Bridges, 1966 and 1967, (8) and on additional data published in 1968 and 1969 (29) (30). These fatigue formulas included consideration of: (1) frequency of applications of the critical loadings. Two cases: 500,000 Constant-Stress cycles or less, and more than 500,000 Constant-Stress cycles. Wind Load plus Dead Load was not included as a case. (2) R, the ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress. (3) the methods used to fabricate members and fastener materials used to connect members. Since 1969 additional research (32) (33) has demonstrated that: ( 1 ) stress range ( Sr ) is the significant factor for fatigue strength rather than the stress ratio, R. (2) cracks that may form in fluctuating compression regions are self-arresting. Therefore, diese compression regions are not subject to fatigue failure. (3) allowable Su for the various details can be expressed in terms of the number of constant-stress cycles, N. From this relationship, Sk-N curves were developed ( 33 ) by using the 95% confidence limits for 95% survival applied to test data. The Sk-X curves are shown in Fig. 9.1.3.13 (34) (35). The categories, A through F, have the same definitions as they do in the AASHTO-Interim Specifi- cations, Bridges 1974. A discussion of the eftect of various welded details on the fatigue life of a typical bridge member is included in the Guide to the 1974 AASHTO Fatigue Specifications (38). The relationship between the allowable fatigue stress ranges, SRfat, and the equivalent number of constant-stress cycles, N, was determined as described in Steps 1 through 5. LIST OF SYMBOLS (used in Steps 1 through 5) Se — Stress range, the algebraic difi^erence between the maxinmm stress and the minimum stress for a stress cycle. Manual Recommendations 85 SRfat — Stress range actually created at a given location in the structure by a moving load. Snact — Allowable fatigue stress range as listed in Table 1.3. 13B. Srn — Stress range which corresponds to N constant stress cycles for a given detail. B — Reciprocal of the slope of the log-log Sr-N curves or die N/Sr ratio. See Fig. 9.1.3.13. a — SRact/SR, or Eact/Eappiied, ratio when Sr is calculated by using the same load which was applied when SRaot was measured. Field measure- ments have shown the measured Sr is equal to a factor, a, times the calculated Sr. This reduction reflects tlie beneficial effects of partici- pation by the bracing, floor system or other tliree-diinensional response of the structure and, also, the fact that full impact does not occur for every stress cycle. Since Sr at a given location is directly proportional to the loading used, E..,ct/E.appiied also equals this ratio. N — Number of occurrences of constant stress cycles which would cause fatigue damage equivalent to the fatigue damage caused by a larger number, Nv, of variable stress cycles. n — Number of stress cycles for each of the stress-range values represented in the distribution being considered. Nv or 2n — Total number of variable stress cycles in the distribution or Ufe. Rayleigh probability-density function — prediction of the frequency of occurrence of each stress range. See sketch. Curve Eq: 7i — 1.011 x, e-'/-(x, )VSRd Xi =z ( Sr — SRmln)/SRd All Sr values are in ksi. For Tables 1.3.13A and B, 'I' = 1 SRn,in =: 0.1 Sr:„,x Sfid = 0.3 SRmax SrRMS = 1.378 SRd -j- Sninln = 0.51 SR,„ax SRdesig.1 = Required Sr for E design loading. Sflniax ~ a SKdes — usually for E 80 loading. * See Steps 2 and 5. F ^ iSi ,SrR.MS>= 0-5I SRrriaX. i' c ?niin SRa . es^d . in 771 D- §?i -*- J> /- — y / \ ^ ,Q c / \ o ■n / \ (1 lU >v ^.^ o <> / \^^ Ki 0- \q / ^""-~- ^ Rayleigh Probability Density Function The regular traffic is usually given as E-loadings. Since Sr is directly propor- tional to the applied E-loading, the Function is described by Sr. SRmax — Maximum stress range or upper limit value for the function being consid- ered. For restrictions, see Steps 2 and 5. SRmii, — Minimum stress range or lower limit value for the starting point of the function being considered. Srrm.s — Stress range for the Root Mean Square (RMS) equals the square root of tlie sum of the squares of each value of Sr — Sis,,, in within the function being considered plus Siimi,,. 86 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Ssm — Sbress range at the peak value, or mode, for the Rayleigh function based on tlie origin or Sr = point. Sfid — Stress range at tlie peak value based on the starting point of the function. Therefore, Sua = Seb. — SRmm. Sbi — Width of tlie interval which was used to subdivide the function. Sri = 1 ksi was used in tliis de\'elopment. 7i — Probabihty density for an interval of 1 ksi, or the ratio of the number of occurrences of Sri to tlie total number of occurrences, 2 n, within the function being considered. * — Ratio of the maximum traffic loading to the design loading for the structure. For Tables 1.3.13 A&B, * = 1. STEPS 1. The loadings to which a bridge will actually be subjected were assumed to have a frequency distribution comparable to the Rayleigh probability density function. This assumed characteristic was based on limited experimental data (30) obtained on older structiu-es which had been designed for E 72 and higher loadings including impact. This frequency distribution was used to obtain a relationship between the maximum E-loading and the root-mean-square E-loading. 2. The maximimi and minimum E-loadings for the Rayleigh function were selected using E 80 loading as the design reference loading and assuming that the regular traffic would be between E 40 to E 55 loadings with occasional heavier loadings. Since the Sr at a given location is directly proportional to tlie E-loading pro- ducing it, Se was used to describe the Rayleigh function (see Step 5 for restric- tions on the use of SRmax). N shall not be less than 100,000 constant stress cycles in any fatigue check. The stiess range mode value for the function, Sm = (SRmax — SBmin)/3, gave a reasonable fit to available test data (5) (30). For this distribution, the desired relationship becomes: SbBMS = 0.46S Bmai -f 0.54 SBmIn Eq. 1 for * = 1 and SRm,„ = 0.1 SR^av, Sbrms = 0.51 SRmax Eq. la Miners Rule, 2 n/N, expressed in terms of stress range, Srn = (27,Sri") 1/B would give a similar relationship if B = 3 were used instead of B i= 2 as was used with the Rayleigh distribution. 3. a Sfifat represents the Sb creating the fatigue damage and may be substituted for SBmai in Eq. la which then becomes: Erms = 0.51 a E design in terms of E-loading or Eq. 2 Srbms = 0.51 a SRfat in terms of Sr The assumed values of a for the various span lengths and the respective values of Sbrms are listed in Columns 6 and 7, Table of Parameters. 4. The reciprocal of the slope of the S-N log-log-curves represents the N/Sr rela- tionship and has an approximate value of 3 for most details (36). N, then. Manual Recommendations 87 varies inversely with Sr*. Using Eq. 2, for which SRmm = 0.1 a Sntat, the rela- tionship between N and Nv may be approximated by: N = (0.51 a)^\, or N/Nv = (0.51 «)" Eq. 3 Substituting the Nv values from Col. 5, Table of Parameters, in Eq. 3 provided the approximate values of N which are listed in Tables 1.3.13 A and B and in Col. 9, Table of Parameters. SKf.it values for each value of N were taken from Fig. 9.1.3.13 and hsted in Table 1.3.13B. TABLE OF PARAMETERS (Used to Develop Tables 1 .3.13A and 1 .3 .13B) c o ■H ■u m u w rj M 1 2 3 Daily Trains 4 5 6 7 Eq. 2 8 Eq. 3 9 N (used in Table 1.3.13A1 Span Length L (in Feet) Life in Days ( 80 ) (yrs.) Stress Cycles per Train Crossing Projected Nv L > 100 29,200 60 2.0 J. 5 X 10^ .70 .80 .85 .85 .90 .95 .95 .357 .045 1. 5 X 10^ lOO^^L > 75 29,200 60 2.0 3.5 X 10^ .408 .068 2 X 10^ 752.L > 50^ 29,200 60 3.0 5.3 X 10^ .433 .081 5 X 10^ 50>_L > 30 29,200 60 12.0 21.0 X 10^ .433 .081 2 X 10^ 30>L^ 29,200 60 60.0^ 105.0 X 10^ .459 .097 .113 >2 2 X 10^" X 10^ Web Mem 2 Tracks 29,200 60 1.0 1.8 X io6 .484 Web Mem 1 Track 29,200 60 2.0 3.5 X 10^ .484 .113 5 X 10^ "Also includes members in Classification III, Table 1.3. 13A. i" Based on one cycle per car or engine for trains averaging 60 load units (cars or engines). « See Figure 9.1.3.13 — probably unlimited fatigue life. Nv — Number of variable-stress cycles — Col. 5. Average main-line volume based on the product of Cols. 2, 3, and 4. The value used in Columns 2, 3, 4 or 5 can be changed as required to calculate Nv for a specific bridge. » — Ratio of Sn,ict to Sn cauuLited for the same applied load — Column 6. More suitable values, if available, can be substituted for the listed values for a specific bridge. Snfat — Allowable fatigue Sr in accordance with 1.3.13. SRRM.s/SRfat Ratio — Column 7, Variable Sr to Constant Su in terms of the Ray- leigh frequency distribution. See Eq. 1 or Eq. 2. This ratio may be also determined from a projected frequency distribution (histogram) or from a different probability curve. N/Nv Ratio— Col. 8, see Eq. 3. N — Number of constant-stress cycles — Col. 9. 5. Steps 1 through 4 and Tables 1.3. 13A and B apply wlu-n the inaxiinimi predicted 88 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association loading is approximately equal to tlie design loading, * ~ 1, and the Rayleigh function shown in the List of Symbols is used. •I" > 1 represents a second condition when the design loading for the structure is less than the desired maximum regular traffic loading to be used on the structure. * < 1 represents a tliird condition when the design loading for the structure is more tlian the maximum regular traffic loading to be used on tire structure. With reference to Step 3, the scope of Eq. 2 can be widened to include all three conditions by die insertion of *. Surms = * 0.51 a Snt^t. Eq. 2a Similarly, in Step 4, 'J should be inserted in Equation 3. N = {^ 0.51 a^N^. Eq. 3a In summary, die N values in Table 1.3.13A should be multplied by the factor, *^, to obtain die proper value of N for die desired condition. For ^ > 1, design loading smaller dian traffic loading, N will be increased for the same xalue of Nv. Appropriate \alues of Sntat for the new values of N may be obtained from Table 1.3. 13B or scaled from Fig. 9.1.3.13. These values for Rurat will be smaller than diose for <& = 1. For * < 1, X will be decreased for the same value of Nv. Again, appropriate values of Sntat for the new value of N may be obtained from Table 1.3. 13B or scaled from Fig. 9.1.3.13. These values of Sntat will be increased over those for * = 1. As noted in Step 2, N should not be less than 100,000 constant stress cycles for any condition. For short spans and transverse members which receive one or more stress cycles per car passage, an additional column, > 2 X 10*, has been added to Table 1.3.13B. The Sntat values listed represent the "direshold," or probable fatigue limit for each category. In Table 1.3.13C, base metal at the gross section of high-strength (H.S.) bolted, friction-ty-pe connections was placed in Category B. Existing test data on H.S. bolted connections were plotted (37) with the Sr-N design curve Fig. 9.1.3.13 for Category B. The plot showed that all data were well above the stress ranges permitted by Category B. Similarly, for the base metal at the net section of riveted connections, a plot of existing test data and the Sr-N design curve for Categor>- D gave the same result. Category D was then used for riveted connections. The existing test data which were used as described in die preceding paragraph also showed that the failures were in the connected material and not in the fasteners. If the fasteners and connected material are proportioned in accordance with Sections 1.3.13 and 1.4, the fasteners will have a greater fatigue life than the connected material. Thus, no categories for bolts or rivets in shear or bearing are required to replace die 1969 formulas. For the usual design condition, only the bending Sr needs to be considered for details, such as transverse stiffeners, which are influenced by shear stresses as well. The classification into design categories has taken the shear influence into account. Therefore, principal stresses need not be considered in die usual design condition. For unusual design conditions, details may be used which require the principal stresses to be considered. Manual Recommendations 89 m ' tx fJ J le ^ -* 9. ft >^ ^ 3k ^ p) ?l 90 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Add to Bibliograph\- on page 1.5-9-22 the following: (32) Fisher, J. W.; Frank, K. H.; Hirt, M. A.; and McNamee, B. M; "Effect of Weldments on the Fatigue-Strengtli of Steel Beams," NCHRP Research Results Digest 18, June 1970, or for more detail, NCHRP Report 102, 1970, both — Highway Research Board. (33) Fisher, J. W.; Albrecht, P. A.; Yen, B. T.; Klingerman, D. J.; and McNamee, B.M.; "Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams with Transverse Stiffeners and Attachments," NCHRP Research Results Digest 44, March, 1973, or for more detail, NCHRP Report 147, 1974, both Transportation Research Board. (34) See Reference (33) NCHRP Report No. 147, pages 40 and 41. (35) Wilson, W. M.; "Fatigue Strength of Fillet Weld and Plug Weld Connec- tions iia Steel Structural Members," Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 330, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, Vol. 41, No. 30, March 14, 1944. (33d) Existing data from various sources, including reference (30), were used to derive conservati\e values. (36) Schilling, C. C; Klippstein, K. H.; Barsom, J. M.; Blake, G. T.; "Fatigue of Welded Steel Bridge Members under Variable-Amplitude Loadings," NCHRP Research Results Digest 60, April, 1974, page 4, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. (37) Fisher, J. W. and Struiek, J. H. A.; "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints," John Wiley, 1974, pages 120 and 121. (38) Guide to 1974 AASHTO Fatigue Specifications, pages 6 through 11, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. Revise Subarticle 6.3.5 (b) 1 on page 13-6-16 by deleting (b) at the end of the Subarticle. Report on Assignment 1 Develop Criteria for the Design of Unloading Pits W. D. Wood (chairman, subcommittee), E. B. Dobranetski, N. E. Ekrem, R. H. MouLTOX, A. L. PiEPMEiER, G. R. Shay, E. S. Thoden, R. N. Wagnon. Your committee submits for adoption as Section 8.4 of Part 8, Chapter 15 of the Manual, the following recommended practice for the design and detail of unload- ing pits. 8.4 UNLOADING PITS 8.4.1 Scope and Purpose (a) This part gives recommended practice for the design and detail of small undertrack structures for handling of ]natcria]s unloaded through the bottom of a railroad car. Representative details and data are included to assist industries in Manual Recommendations 91 preparing plans for submittal to railroads operating on tracks involved and to facilitate a railroad's consideration of such submissions. 8.4.2 General (a) The design of supporting beams for unloading pits shall conform to the requirements of Parts 1 through 5 of Chapter 15, except as modified herein. (b) The design of the pit structure shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 8. (c) Typical designs are shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7 and design criteria are listed in Articles 8.4.3 and 8.4.4. (d) The track running rails are attached directly, without ties, to supporting beams or rails except in the case of very short spans where the running rails may be adequate to carry wheel loads without supporting beams. 8.4.3 Operating Limitations (a) This part applies to pits located on tracks where speed does not exceed 10 mph. (b) Where train speed exceeds 10 mph, tlie design requirements of Part 2 of Chapter 8 and Parts 1 through 5 of Chapter 15 shall apply, and the pit shall be designed accordingly. 8.4.4 Loads (a) The supporting beams shall be proportioned for the sum of the following loads: 1. Dead load. 2. Live load. 3. Impact. (b) The pit structure shall be proportioned for the sum of tlie following loads: 1. Dead load. 2. Live load, without impact. 3. Horizontal earth pressure. 4. Horizontal live load surcharge. 8.4.5 Unsupported Running Rail (a) The maximum clear span length for unloading pits witiiout supporting beams or rails shall be as shown in Fig. 5. (b) The design span shall be taken as clear span plus 6 inches. (c) No joints in the running rail shall be permitted over the pit. (d) The top of tlie concrete pit walls shall be true and level to provide fuU bearing for the running rails. 8.4.6 Rail as Supporting Beams (a) The maximum clear span length for unloading pits with rail supporting beams shall be 4 ft. See Fig. 5 for details. (b) The supporting rails shall extend a minimum of 6 inches into the concrete side walls and shall be in place when tlie walls are poured. 92 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association (c) No joints shall be permitted in the supporting or running rail over the pit. (d) The running rail shall be attached to the supporting rail with pairs of %-inch hook bolts located at the center of the span. (e) Welding on running or support rails shall not be permitted. 8.4.7 Structural Supporting Beams (a) This Article is applicable to a maximum span lengtli of 15 ft. See Fig. 6 for details. Spans longer than l5-ft shall be designed as bridges in accordance with Parts 1 through 5 of Chapter 15. (b) Running rails shall normally be attached to tlie supporting beam with pairs of /8-inch hook bolts spaced at 2 ft. However, when the width of flange is adequate, rail clips at 2-ft 6-inch centers may be used in lieu of hook bolts to attach the running rail to tlie supporting beam. Welding of rails to beams shall not be pennitted. (c) The supporting beam shall be provided widi end bearing stifFener plates fillet welded to the web and ground to bear against both top and bottom flanges or welded witli full penetration welds at top and bottom flanges. (d) Beams shall be provided with masonry plates between beams and concrete pit walls. Beams shall be welded to the masonry plates. Should the owner desire, sole plates can be provided between beam and masonry plate. The sole plate shall be welded to the beam flange and may be beveled on tlie bottom surface from the inside edge to within 1 inch of the center line of bearing. Installation of M-inch-thick elastomeric bearing pads under masonry plates is recommended. (e) Two anchor bolts for each masonry plate shall be provided. Anchor bolts shall be 1 inch minimmn in diameter, swedged and shall extend 12 inches into the masonry. Anchor bolts may be preset, or drilled and grouted into place after steel is erected. (f ) Interior diaphragms shall be used at a maximum of 6-ft centers. Diaphragms shall be channel sections as deep as the beam will allow. (g) End diaphragms of the same section as the interior diaphragms shall be connected to the end stifFener plates at each end of the beam. If the ends of the beam are to be encased in concrete, end diaphragms may be omitted. 8.4.8 Concrete Pit (a) A minimum of 2 inches shall be provided from edge of bearing plate to face of pit wall. (b) The design and details of the pit structure as shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 will be adequate for most conditions encountered in tlie field. Soil borings to deter- mine actual conditions are desirable. Determination of soil conditions prior to tlie design of die pit is the owner's responsibility. 8.4.9 Construction Drawings (a) Figs. 5, 6 and 7 are not construction drawings. Details shown are intended as a guide in preparing construction drawings. If tiiese details are not apphcable, alternate details may be submitted. Note diat beams shown in table of beam require- ments are applicable for details and allowable loads shown. If additional holes are made in the flange or web for bolted connections or rail clips, or if there is addi- tional dead weight of mechanical equipment or unloading devices, design of beams must be reviewed. A complete construction drawing should show the following: Manual Recommendations 93 1. Location of structure relative to existing tracks. 2. Plan, elevation, and sections. 3. Complete details including dimensions, reinforcing, beam details, and cover details. 4. When pit is to be constructed under traffic, provisions for temporary support of the track shall be included. 5. When pit is located adjacent to an operating track, provisions for sheeting to support the operating track during construction shall be included. (b) Complete construction plans shall be submitted to tlie chief engineer of the railway company for approval prior to initiation of construction. Only approved plans shall be used for construction. 8.4.10 Applicant's Responsibilities (a) Handle in advance with the railroad to determine the acceptability of the chosen location with respect to movement of rail traffic and for consideration of requirements for constmction, including but not limited to necessity for falsework to maintain rail traffic, need for sheeting and shoring to protect rail traffic on adjacent tracks and variations in specified loadings and impact. (b) Make adequate provision for disposal of drainage from within. (c) Obtain permits as required. SECTION ALONG TRACK SECTION NORMAL TO TRACK UNSUPPORTED RUNNING RAIL MAXIMUM CLEAR SPAN MINIMUM WEIGHT OF RAIL r-3" 90« 1-8" 100* 2-1" 110* 2-4" IIS* 2-6" 119* 3-0" 131* SUPPORTED RUNNING RAIL* MAXIMUM CLEAR SPAN RUNNING RAIL SUPPORT RAIL 4'-0" 90* Minimum llb*Minimum Bol Not Less Than Running Roil. ^To be used only a1 I of Railroad's Chief Engine' MASONRY PLATE GENERAL NOTES: SPEC: OESIGN.MATERIALAND WORKMANSHIP SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH AREA MANUAL FOR RAILWAY ENGINEERING.CHAPTER e.CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND FOUNOATIONS.ANO CHAPTER 15, STEEL STRUCTURES LIVE LOAD: COOPER E80 WITH 28% IMPACT CONCRETE SHALL BE PROPORTIONED TO PROVIDE A MINIMUM 28 DAY COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF 3,000 PS I REINFORCING STEEL SHALL BE DEFORMED BARS CON- FORMING TO A STM A6I5, GRADE 40 OR GRADE 60 FOUNDATION MATERIAL SHALL BE ADEQUATE TO SUP- PORT A LOAD OF 2 TON PER SQUARE FOOT NO RAIL JOINTS WILL BE PERMITTED OVER THE PIT OPENING THIS DRAWING IS INTENDED AS A GUIDE IN PREPARING A CONSTRUCTION DRAWING. IF PIT IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED UNDER TRAFFIC, INCLUDE PLANS FOR SUPPORTING THE TRACK. IF PIT IS LOCATED ADJACENT TO AN OPERATING TRACK. INCLUDE SHEETING PLANS TO SUPPORT THE OPER- ATING TRACK. ALL PLANS SHALL BE SUBMITTED TO THE RAILWAY'S CHIEF ENGINEER FOR APPROVAL. NO TRAFFIC WILL BE ALLOWED OVER PIT UNTIL CON- CRETE HAS REACHED 2500 PSI COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH. PITS ARE TO BE LOCATED ON TRACKS HAVING A MAXIMUM SPEED OF lOM PH HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT FLUID PRESSURE ON WALL FROM BACKFILL IS 30 PS.F PLUS II FEET OF LIVE LOAD SURCHARGE. ONLY NEW OR GOOD QUALITY SECOND HAND RAIL FREE OF ALL DEFECTS SHALL BE USED. SUGGESTED PLAN ONLY PLAN MUST BE ADJUSTED TO LOCAL CONDITIONS. CONSTRUCTION PLANS MUST BE SUBMITTED TO RAILROAD'S CHIEF ENGINEER FOR APPROVAL. UNLOADING PIT FOUR FOOT MAXIMUM SPAN r Minimum HOOKED BOLT RAIL FASTENINGS ■nqlh In Feel Center To Center Of Bearing Slittefw SECTION ALONG TRACK TABLE OF BEAM REQUIREMENTS SPAN FEET REQD WEB AREA REQD, S IN' BEAM SIZE OF 1" BEARING PLATE INCHES WIDTH OF J STIFFENERS INCHES NUMBER INTERIOR DIAPHRAM LESS „ =s,e M°,0«« r«',6 = „ 46,. KVs' liis ^ " »2 sLI . S,7 6^,0 :;?A'7'4 ll'i 3 60 72 8 SJ'z'xS^ 1511 ,0 S. ,7. Sy' fill " S7 ,0,., "mx" i;fo " r. ,», :fK"l PI '> 76 ,4.,0 2 - BO ,7,. V> 16X96 ex IB = ■» ,. „4, :'"« °;;;i ' SECTION NORMAL TO TRACK V'Rodius HOOKED BOLT RAIL FASTENINGS / ^Beoring Plote Width +3" Minimum ALTERNATE BACKWALL DETAIL GENERAL NOTES: SPEC DESIGN, MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH A R E A MANUAL FOR RAILWAY ENGINEERING, CHAPTER 8, CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATiONS. AND CHAPTER 15, STEEL STRUCTURES LIVE LOAD COOPER E80 WITH 28% IMPACT STRUCTURAL STEEL SHALL CONFORM TO ASTM,,A36, CONCRETE SHALL BE PROPORTIONED TO PROVIDE A MINIMUM 28 DAY COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF 3,000 PS, I, REINFORCING STEEL SHALL BE DEFORMED BARS CON- FORMING TO ASTM A6I5, GRADE 40 OR GRADE 60. FOUNDATION MATERIAL SHALL BE ADEQUATE TO SUP- PORT A LOAD OF 2,0 TON PER SQUARE FOOT. THIS DRAWING IS INTENDED AS A GUIDE IN PREPARING A CONSTRUCTION DRAWING. IF PIT IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED UNDER TRAFFIC, INCLUDE PLANS FOR SUPPORTING THE TRACK. IF PIT IS LOCATED ADJACENT TO AN OPERATING TRACK. INCLUDE SHEETING PLANS TO SUPPORT THE OPER- ATING TRACK. ALL PLANS SHALL BE SUBMITTED TO THE RAILWAY'S CHIEF ENGINEER FOR APPROVAL. NOTE "A". BOLTED RAIL CLIPS MAY BE USED AS ALTERNATE PROVIDED THERE IS SUFFICIENT FLANGE WIDTH AND PRO- VISION IS MADE FOR LOSS OF SECTION IN THE HOLES. NO TRAFFIC WILL BE PERMITTED OVER PIT UNTIL CON- CRETE HAS REACHED 2500 PS.I. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH. PITS ARE TO BE LOCATED ON TRACKS HAVING A MAXIMUM SPEED OF 10 M.PH. HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT FLUID PRESSURE ON WALLS FROM BACKFILL IS 30PS.F PLUS II FEET OF LIVE LOAD SURCHARGE. SEE FIGURE 7 FOR REINFORCING STEEL DETAILS. SUGGESTED PLAN ONLY. PLAN MUST BE ADJUSTED TO LOCAL CONDITIONS CONSTRUCTION PLANS MUST BE SUBMITTED TO RAIL- ROAD'S CHIEF ENGINEER FOR APPROVAL UNLOADING PIT FIFTEEN FOOT MAXIMUM SPAN SPAN LENGTH - "ll' IN FEET U HI u. z I = 1 1- X o UJ X _l _J i \ 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 15 MARK 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 T II II II II II 12 12 13 13 13 15 S #6@I2 #6(§>I2 '#5@ll A " #5(3)12 #5@I2| *6@I2 #6@I0 #7@ll *e®8i #8@7i #8@7 #8@6i #9@7i #9@6 B 3'- 9" 3-0" 3-0" 2-9" 2-6" 2-3" 2-3" 2-3" 2-3" 2-3" 2-3" X 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 T II II II II II 12 12 13 13 13 15 S #7@ll *7@ll *6@I0 A #5@I2 #5@I2 #6@I2 *6@9 #8@9 #8@8 »8@7i #8@7 *8@6 #9@6^ B 3-9" 4-3" 4'-0" 3'- 6" 3'- 3" 2'- 6" 2-6" X 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 T 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 15 S *7@I0 *7@I0 A *5@I2 #5@I2 *5@ll *6@7 #7@7i *e@8j; *8@7^ *e@6^ #9@6i B 4-0" 4-6" 5-0" 5-6" 4-6" 3-3" 3-3" 3-3" 3-0" 3-0" 3-0" X 8 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 T 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 15 S #7(3)7^ #7@7i A #5@I2 *5@I2 #7@ll #7@9 #8@I0 *8@8 *8@7-i #9@7 B 4'-0" 4-6" 5-0" 5-6" 6'-0" 4'-0" 3-9" 3'- 9" 3-9" 3-6" 3-3" X 9 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 T 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 S #7@7 #7@7 A *5@I2 •5@I2 «6(S>I2 #6@I0 #7@ll #8 (gill *8@I0 #9@75 8 4'-0" 4-6" 5-0" 5-6" 6'-0" 6'- 6" 5-3" 5-0" 4'-9" 4'-6" 4'-0" X 10 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 T 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 S #7@6i #7@6i A »5@I2 *5@I2 #6@ll2 #7(ffil2 #7@tl *8@e B 4' -3" 4'-9" 5-3" 5'-9" 6-3" 6'-9" 7-3" 7-0" 6-3" 6-0" 5-0" X NOTES: BARS A AND B ARE NOTED IN THE TABLE. ALL OTHER BARS SHALL BE #5@I2 CENTERS. END WALL BARS SHALL BE THE SAME AS SIDE WALL BARS. WORK WITH FIGURE 6. UNLOADING PIT FIFTEEN FOOT MAXIMUM SPAN REINFORCING DETAILS T and S are inches. Manual Recommendations 95 Report on Assignment 7 Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Requirements in AREA Specifications Relating to Steel Structures J. G. Clark (chairman, subcommittee), T. J. Boyle, H. B. Cundiff, J. L. Durkee, J. M. Hayes, W. W. Sanders, Jr., M. Schifalacqua, R. H. Wengenroth. Your committee submits for adoption the following 13 references to be added at the end of Part 6 — Movable Bridges, Chapter 15 of the Manual. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Movable Bridges, C. C. Schneider, Paper No. 1071, ASCE Transactions, Vol. LX, June, 1908, page 258. 2. Mechanical Features of the Vertical-Lift Bridge, H. P. VanCleve, Paper No. 1679, A.S.M.E. Annual Meeting, December, 1918. 3. Vertical Lift Bridges, E. E. Howard, Paper No. 1478, ASCE Transactions, Vol. LXXXIV, 1921, page 580. 4. Electrical Equipment for Movable Bridges, General Electric Company, 1955. 5. Movable Bridges, Vol. I — Structural, Vol. H — Machinery, O. E. Hovey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1927. 6. Movable and Long Span Bridges, edited by G. A. Hool and W. S. Kinne, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1st Edition, 1924, 2nd Edition, 1943. 7. Bridge Engineering, Vols. I and II, J. A. L. Waddell, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1st Edition, 1916. 8. Design of Steel Bridges; F. C. Kunz, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1st Edition, 1915. 9. Specifications for Bridges Movable in Vertical Plane, B. R. Leffler, ASCE Transactions, Vol. LXXVI, 1913, page 370. 10. Development of the Chicago Type Bascule Bridge, D. N. Becker, Paper No. 2226, ASCE Transactions, Vol. 109, 1944, page 995. 11. Fifty- Year History of Movable Bridge Construction — Part I, E. R. Hardesty, Hardesty & Hanover, New York, N. Y., H. W. Fischer, R. W. Christie, ASCE Journal of the Construction Division, Vol. 101, No. 3, September, 1975, pages 511-527. 12. Fifty-Year History of Movable Bridge Construction — Part II, E. R. Hardesty, Hardesty & Hanover, New York, N. Y., H. W. Fischer, R. W. Christie, ASCE Journal of the Construction Division, Vol. 101, No. 3, September, 1975, pages 529-543. 13. Fifty-Year History of Movable Bridge Construction — Part III, R. II. Wengen- roth, Westenhoff and Novick, Inc., Chicago, 111., H. A. Mix, E. R. Hardesty, ASCE Journal of the Construction Division, Vol. 101, No. 3, September, 1975, pages 545-557. 96 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Your committee further recommends that the following new Section be added to Part 9, Chapter 15 of the Manual: 9.6 MOVABLE BRIDGES 9.6.1 Bibliography See tlie Bibliography for Movable Bridges shown at tlie end of Part 6. Manual Recommendations Committee 34 — Scales Report on Assignment B Revision of Manual L. L. LowERY (chairman, s-tihcommittee), all members of Committee 34. Your committee submits for adoption and publication in Chapter 34 of the Manual the Belt Conveyor Scale Rules published in Bulletin 656, January-February 1976, pages 288-295, with the following editorial corrections: Under Article S.2.28.15 on page 291 of the Bulletin, change the note to read as follows: Note: When other than test chains are used, only idlers of the highest quality and requiring no lubrication should be used. Such idlers should be installed on the weighing element and for at least five idler spaces before, and for at least five idler spaces after, the weighing element. Further, each week correct idler level should be determined toith a string level. If any one, or more, of the above named idlers are out of level, the scale should not be used until a correction is made and a material test is conducted. Idlers with worn bearings should he rei)laced. This correction reduces the inherent error from using lubricated bearings. Under Definitions of Terms Used in Connection with Belt Conveyor Scales, pages 292 and 293 of the Bulletin, change the definitions for Counter (Remote) and Printer to read as follows: Counter ( Remote ) : A numerical display in a location remote from tlie scale showing the weight of material that has been conveyed over the scale. PniNTER: A device used to imprint on tickets, tape, or other papers, the weight of material tliat has passed over the scale in a given time. (Such as per car or per train weights.) The revised definitions use the more general tenn "weight" rather than pounds or tons. Manual Recommendations Committee 6 — Buildings Report on Assignment B Revision of Manual T. H. Seep (cliairman, subcommittee), F. R. Bartlett, E. P. Bohn, F. D. Day, C. M. DiEHL, J. W. Hayes, K. E. Hornung, C. R. Madeley, G. H. McMillan, L. A. Palagi, R. E. Phillips, J. G. Robertson, S. G. Urban. Your committee submits for adoption the following new Part 11 for Chapter 6 of the Manual. Part 11 Portable Prefabricated Buildings 11.1 FOREWORD Portable prefabricated buildings are fast making inroads in the railroad indus- try. Standard and custom-built units now provide almost limitless designs and material combinations to answer building requirements for railway use. The major limitation is unit size. Transportation clearances must be considered in each indi- vidual case. The economy, versatility and durability of these structures make them ideal for many applications. The types of structures mentioned herein are those constructed by outside firms specializing in shop fabrication of component parts. Frame and metal type portable buildings can and have been field-constructed by railroad forces, but because of weather problems, crew transportation, material delivery, inexperience, etc., the cost of these units proves to be excessive compared to the shop-fabricated type in most instances. 11.2 SUITABILITY Railroad facilities for which portable prefabricated buildings are suitable are as follows: 11.2.1 Yard and Shop Buildings a. Lunch, locker and toilet buildings. b. Yard offices. c. Crew housing. d. Supervisor offices (in-plant and other). e. Swithchmen's shelters. f. Hostler houses. 97 98 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association g. Equipment storage buildings. h. Utility buildings. i. Pump houses. j. Compressor buildings. k. Crew caller offices. 1. Fire-fighting equipment storage buildings. 11.2.2 Maintenance of Way Buildings a. Maintenance of way headquarters. b. Motor car houses. c. Truck garages. d. Track machinery storage building. e. Communication equipment buildings. f. Signal equipment buildings. g. Storage buildings, h. Tool sheds. 11.2.3 Stations a. Small stations. b. Waiting shelters. c. Combination passenger and freight stations. 11.2.4 Miscellaneous Buildings a. Scale houses. b. Field offices. c. TOFC offices. d. Microwave equipment buildings. 11.3 PORTABILITY One of tlie main advantages of the portable prefabricated buildings is that once the utilities have been disconnected, it can be transported to another location and set in place with a minimum of expense. The buildings are so constructed as to minimize racking in shipment and can be transported on truck beds or flat cars; tlie mobile trailer type structures are provided with their own wheel and axle assem- blies for highway travel. Precautions must be taken to secure the building to the mode of transportation used and carrier inspection is required. When building width requirements are greater tlian transportation clearances allow, some types of units can be constructed in multiple sections with splice joints in floor, end walls and roof which are connected and made weathertight at the site. 11.4 ECONOMY The economy of portable prefabricated buildings is derived from the following: a. Modern shop production methods. b. Volume material purchases. c. Minimum foundation requirements. d. Minimum maintenance because of materials used. Manual Recommendations 99 11.5 TYPES OF STRUCTURES AVAILABLE The fundamental types are as follows: 11.5.1 Portable Building on Flatcars See AREA Proceedings, Vol. 76, 1975, pages 301-310. 11.5.2 Metal Buildings Metal buildings are fabricated from pre-engineered, mass-produced building parts confonning to the Metal Building Manufacturers Association "Code of Standard Practice." Size and design are governed by component modules which vary with the manufacturer. Wood or steel framed systems can be utilized. Wall coverings can be prepainted sandwich type insulating panels with integral interior metal lining or single sheeting with separate insulation and interior liner. Wood furring can be applied as another alternate and insulation and liner material of any type used. Roof configurations are usually flat, shed or gable, utilizing self-supporting metal panels that provide a weather seal without the aid of additional covering. Ceilings can be prepainted metal or wood-framed and finished with acoustic tile or almost any otlier material desired. Insulation can be added to suit design require- ments. Partitions may be frame or metal and finished as desired. Metal building design is usually governed by stock components, and any varia- tion from the manufacturer's standards would tend to increase the cost of fabrica- tion. Standard accessories which are available are as follows: 1. Insulating windows and window wall units. 2. Personnel doors (solid or glazed). 3. Overhead, sliding or double swing doors. 4. Ventilators. 5. Louvers. 6. Gutters and downspouts. 7. Skylights and wall lights. 8. Roof overhangs (eave and sidewall). 9. Special framed openings. 10. Insulations. This type of building is usually furnished in component parts by the manu- facturer for field erection by the owner or manufacturer's supplier. 11.5.3 Trailer-Type Unit The prefabricated mobile trailer-type unit is also pre-engineered and fabricated mainly from stock parts. It has an all-steel, arc-welded heavy-duty dual type sub- structure, specifically designed to withstand heavy service requirements, off-road use and movement by truck or rail. The unit can be equipped with running gear assemblies consisting of tandem axles with multileaf springs and equalizing bar suspension, four-wheel brakes (electric or hydraidic), and heavy-duty wheels with tubeless tires. Wall and roof assemblies are primarily steel or wood-framed and insulated throughout. The exterior is covered witli a metal skin with a baked enamel finish. Exterior body corners and roof rails are reinforced to provide extra rigidity and impact resistance. The entire shell assembly is usually secured to the frame by means of steel shear plates, permanently joining the two basic assemblies into one integral structural unit. The frame is complete with a heavy-duty ball hitch and 100 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association adjustable jack. The floor assembly usually consists of wood joists, plywood sub- floor, particle board and commercial-grade floor tile. An aluminium weather shield is usually installed between the floor assembly and frame. Interior walls and ceilings can be pre-finished paneling, aluminum bonded to plywood, painted plywood, or metal. Standard accessories available are as follows: 1. Prefinished aluminum entrance doors. 2. Aluminum windows. 3. Complete batliroom facilities (gas or electric toilets available). 4. Complete kitchen facilities. 5. Complete electrical system including heat (installed in compliance with the National Electrical Code). 6. Gas or oil-fired furnace with under-floor duct system and themiostat control. 7. Air conditioning. 8. Thermostat-controlled electric heat tape for all internal plumbing lines. 9. Power generator. 10. Built-in water storage tanks with electric or hand-operated pressure system and switch over valves for water main supply. 11. Beds or bunks. 11.5.4 Wood Frame Buildings Wood frame buildings may be custom-fabricated to meet any requirement, Frame roof, wall and floor assemblies lend themselves to economy, especially if the units can be mass-produced. Stacking units have now become a reality for multi-story applications. Manufacturers use modern practices in the manufacturing and fabrication of material. Ply\vood is extensively used in floors, roofs and walls to assure structural rigidity which will permit long-distance hauling witliout racking or distortion of the unit. The strength of members and connections should be determined by accepted methods of structural analysis. Certified test data and structural analysis should be made available if required by local or state codes. Framing materials are designed and fabricated so as not to exceed allowable unit stresses as given by the Wood Structural Design Data, National Lumber Manu- facturer's Association for the stress grades and species of lumber used. Required design loads should be specified by the owner. 11.5.5 Precast Concrete Precast concrete structiues have been prefabricated by a few firms and there has been some usage in the railroad industry, mainly for signal and communication equipment houses. This type of structure is permanent, but because of its weight, heavy equipment must be implemented to move and place the unit. This factor should be considered when analyzing cost. 11.5.6 Moulded Fiberglass Moulded fiberglass structures are an innovation in the building system field, utflizing the most modern materials. These units are constructed of lightweight, moisture- and vermin-proof materials which will not sustain fire (self extinguishing). Buildings are stocked in several small sizes but custom sizes and designs are avail- able. They are particularly adaptable for equipment shelters. Manual Recommendations 101 11.6 SERVICES AVAILABLE Heating, air conditioning, ventilation, wiring, lighting and plumbing can be installed complete as specified by the owner. The manufacturer should be infonned of any special requirements such as: a. Cooling loads. b. Lighting requirements. c. Special wiring. d. Type of heating system desired and fuel preference. e. Air change required for ventilation. 11.7 SITE PREPARATION A cleared and reasonably accessible construction site should be provided for ease in placement of the structure on the foundation. 11.8 FOUNDATION REQUIREMENTS Secondhand treated timber sills, concrete block piers or reinforced concrete footings and floor slab must be provided, depenchng on personal choice or if called for by governing codes. Proper anchorage of building to foundation should also be provided. 11.9 CODE REQUIREMENTS Code requirements vary greatly over the country, but portable prefabricated buildings can be engineered and fabricated to meet most codes with tlie possible exception that fire and occupancy zoning or esthetic objections from local planning agencies may preclude their use. 11.10 DRAWINGS On any variation frona standard or stock units, the manufacturer should be furnished a drawing and/or specification indicating exact requirements. The manu- facturer should in turn furnish a complete set of shop drawings for approval. 11.11 SUMMARY This part of Chapter 6 has attempted to show tlie vast potential for prefabricated portable buildings in the railroad industry. Much wider application can be envisaged in the years to come. Planners and designers should familiarize themselves with the many types available and the characteristics of each so as to be able to discern their adaptability for a particular application. 102 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Manual Recommendations Committee 8 — Concrete Structures and Foundations Report on Assignment 2 Foundations and Earth Pressures G. W. Cooke (cliairman, subcommittee), G. F. Dalquist, M. T. Davisson, B. M. DORNBLATT, B. FaST, J. O. HOLLADAY, R. J. HaLLAWELL, T. F. JaCOBS, T. R. Kealey, R. H. Kendall, R. A. Lohnes, R. J. McFaklin, E. F. Manley, E. C. Mardorf, E. S. Neely, D. Novick, M. P. Schindler, J. R. Shaker, W. B. Staxczyk. Your committee submits for adoption the following new Part 22, Chapter 8 of the Manual, with the recommendation that present Part 22 be renumbered Part 23. Part 22 Specifications for Subsurface Investigation 22.1 INTRODUCTION The intent of this Part is to furnish the engineer with a guide for the develop- ment of a specification for a particular project. Subsurface investigation for structures only is covered in this section. Subsurface investigation for fills and cuts should follow the requirements of Chapter 1, Part 1, Roadbed. It is anticipated that a qualified soils engineer will be retained to perform the investigation, the needed testing, and make the required analysis. 22.2 SCOPE These specifications cover tlie procedure for making borings through soil and into rock, using qualified personnel, to determine the nature and extent of the various soil and rock strata, and the depth to ground water; as well as to obtain samples for identification and tests, for the purposes of development of the subsoil profile and determination of the engineering properties of the soils and rock. 22.3 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTIGATIONS 22..3.1 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS To determine the bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of the soil, at specific locations and depths, within the subsoil profile for the design of founda- tions for structures. 22.3.2 FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS To detemiine the cause of failures associated with foundation conditions. Manual Recommendations 103 22.4 GENERAL 22.4.1 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF TEST HOLES The number and location of test holes shall be such tliat the soil profiles ob- tained will permit an accurate estimate of the extent and character of the under- lying soil and/or rock masses and will disclose important irregularities in the subsurface conditions. The number and location of the borings shall be detennined by the engineer. 22.4.2 DEPTH OF BORINGS Borings shall extend to a depth which will permit a design with adequate bearing capacity and shall penetrate all deposits which are unstable for foundation purposes. Soft strata shall be penetrated completely even when covered with a surface layer of higher bearing capacity. The first boring at each foundation unit shall extend to a dej^th sufficient to disclose deep problem layers. Remaining borings at that foundation unit may be terminated 10 ft below the bottom of the lowest problem layer. When a structure is to be founded on rock, one or more borings shall be extended at least 5 ft into sound rock (defined as RQD^ equal to 90%) to determine the extent and character of the weathered zone of the rock and to ensure that bedrock and not boulders have been encountered. For failure investigations, borings shall extend to a depth sufficient to detennine the limits of the failure. 22.4.3 EQUIPMENT All equipment to be used shall be in satisfactory operating condition and shall be capable of penetrating to the required deptlis. The methods of performing the borings and obtaining the samples shall be so designed as to obtain the desired results. 22.4.4 PERMITS All necessary permits shall be secured before the work is started as provided by the contract. 22.5 EXPLORATION METHODS 22.5.1 DRY SAMPLE BORINGS 22.5.1.1 Auger Borings Auger borings may be used for exploratory borings as a rapid means of ob- taining a preliminary soil profile. (a) Procedure — Auger borings shall be made by turning a screw-type auger into the soil a short distance, either by hand or mechanical means, withdrawing the auger and tiie soil that clings to it, and removing the soil from the auger for examination. The auger shall not be less than VA in. in diameter. Most cohesive soils above the water table will permit auger borings to a depth of 20 ft or more without casing to support the walls of the hole. 1 RQD = Rock Quality Designation defined as the ratio of the total length of pieces 4 in. or greater to the length cored. In determining the length of 4-in. pieces, fresh fractures caused by the drilling process shall be ignored. 104 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Eng ineering Association (b) Casing — If the hole does not stand open because of caving or squeezing from the sides, it shall be lined with a casing the diameter of which is larger than that of the auger. The casing shall be driven to a deptli not to exceed the top of the next sample. In heu of casing, a continuous-flight hollow-stem auger may be used, sampling being done through the stem with a split-barrel sampler. Point closure devices shall be used where the soils have a tendency of flowing into the hollow stem. (c) Sampling — The soil auger can be used for both boring the hole and bringing up disturbed samples of tlie soil encountered. Other sampling methods shall be as specified in Article 22.6.1. 22.5.1.2 Wash Borings (a) Procedure — Casing shall be driven to the required samphng elevation and the inside cleaned partly by a chopping and twisting action of a light bit and partly by the jetting action of water which is pumped through the hollow drill rod sind bit. Cuttings are removed from the hole by circulating water which passes down the drill rod and returns to tlie surface between tlie drill rod and the casing pipe. (b) Casings — Casings shall not be less than VA in. inside diameter, and shall be extra-heavy pipe. (c) Sampling — Whenever there is a change in the appearance of tlie mixture of wash water and soil that comes out of the hole, but not greater than at intervals of 5 ft, a sample shall be taken by one of tlie methods specified in Article 22.6.1. 22.5.1.3 Determination of Ground Water Level The elevation of the ground water at each boring location shall be accurately determined at the following times: (a) While drilling is in progress, at the start of each day's operation with casing in the hole, (b) At the completion of the boring, 30 minutes after the casing is withdrawn from the hole, ( c ) 24 hours after the casing is witlidrawn from the hole. Wlien the hole is in a material that caves when the casing is withdrawn, a 1-in.- diameter perforated plastic tubing shall be inserted in the casing before it is withdrawn. If long-tenii observations of the ground water are desired, a short casing shall be installed and sealed to prevent inflow of surface water. The casing shall be threaded and capped at the upper end. The elevation of tlie ground water can then be read in the plastic tube after tlie casing is withdrawn. If tlie boring is located where the ground-water level may be influenced by a tidal body of water, a record of the exact stage and direction of the tide at the time of taking the elevation of the ground water shall also be made. 22.5.2 TEST PITS Test pits shall be used for shallow investigations where tlie surface material is extremely variable. They shall be made to the full depth of the layer. Excavation shall be by suitable methods and materials of each class shall be kept in separate piles as far as is practicable. Representative samples of tlie formations shall be taken Manual Recommendations 105 progressively from the natural formation where requested by the engineer, placed in suitable sample jars or containers and properly labeled. 22.5.3 CORE BOPUNGS IN ROCK 22.5.3.1 Equipment Drilling into bedrock shall be done with a double-tube, swivel-type core barrel equipped with a diamond, shot or other approved bit which will obtain a core, not less than 2/8 in. in diameter, from tlie rock penetrated. The drilling rig shall be capable of applying a constant hydraulic pressure on the bit during drilling. 22.5.3.2 Starting Core Bit Before starting the core bit in tlie hole, a chopping bit shall be used to break up and remove all distintegrated rock, and the casing shall be seated firmly on hard rock by driving and washing out. 22.5.3.3 Procedure The core bit shall be started in the hole and drilled to a depth of 5 ft. It shall tlien be withdrawn, the core removed, labeled as specified in Article 22.7.4, and stored. After the core is removed, the core bit shall be replaced in tlie hole and another 5 ft of depdi drilled, the core bit withdrawn and tlie core removed as noted above. Drilling shall continue in this manner until the required depth has been reached. If the core bit becomes blocked it shall immediately be withdrawn and cleaned before advancing further. 22.6 SAMPLING 22.6.1 DRY SAMPLES 22.6,1.1 Split-Barrel Sampling of SoU (a) Scope — This procedure covers the metliod for recovering disturbed samples with a split-barrel sampler and to obtain a record of the resistance of the soil to the penetration of the sampler. The split-barrel sampler shall conform to ciurent ASTM requirements. (b) Procedure — The casing shall be driven to tlie sampling elevation and the hole cleaned out by angering, washing or other methods insuring that the mate- rial to be sampled is not disturbed by the clean-out operation. Sampling shall either be continuous or at 5-ft intervals of depth and at all changes in strata. The split- barrel sampler is slowly lowered to the bottom of the hole, tlien driven into die soil a distance of 18 in. by a series of blows from a 140-lb hammer falling freely for a drop of 30 in. The number of blows required to produce each 6 in. of penetration is recorded. Wliere tlie bottom of the boring is below the water table at the time of sampUng the water level in .the hole should be at or above tlie ground-water level. The number of die blows for the last 12 in. is temied the Standard Penetration Blow Count or N-Value. In cohesionless or nearly cohesionless sands located below the water table a core catcher attached to the lower end of the sampler or a scraper bucket or otiier similar devices shall be used in order to prevent the sample from falling out before it can be brought to die surface. The soil shall be prompdy removed from the sampler and immediately placed in airtight suitable containers of sufficient size to hold a section of the sample intact. The containers shall be marked to indicate the job 106 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association designation, boring number, sample number and elevation or depth at which sample was taken and shall be shipped to a laboratory designated by the engineer. 22.6.1.2 Thin- Walled Tube Sampling of Soil (a) Scope — This procedure covers the method for obtaining relatively un- disturbed samples of suitable size of cohesive soils for laboratory testing. The minimum size sample shall not be less than 3 in. outside diameter. Piston-type samplers shall be used if satisfactory samples cannot be obtained with the thin- walled tube samplers. Thin-walled tube samplers shall conform to the current ASTM requirements. (b) Procedure — The casing shall be dri\en to the sampling elevation and tlie hole cleaned out by augering, washing, or other methods insuring that the material to be sampled is not disturbed by the cleanout operation. With the sampling tube resting on the bottom of the hole and the water level in the hole approximately at ground water elevation, the tube shall be pushed into the soil with a continuous and rapid motion without impact or twisting by means of a hydrauhc jack, for a chstance about 6 in. less than the length of the tube. The sampler shall then be rotated to shear the end of the sample and the sample tube slowly raised to the surface. Disturbed material at each end of the tube shall be completely removed. To insure laboratory test results that are representative of the in-situ conditions, it is necessary for the samples to be transported and delivered to the laboratory in an undisturbed condition and without loss of moisture. A recommended procedure is to fill the space in the tube witli a minimum of 1 in. of micro-crystalline paraffin wax, cap and tape the ends and seal them with wax. If the samples are to be tested in the field, they can be carefully extruded from the tubes and tested. Each sample shall be labeUed with the job designation, boring number, sample nmnber, elevation or depth at which the sample was taken and the orientation of the sample. 22.6.2 CORES The rock samples shall be placed in wooden boxes in the order in which they were taken. These boxes shall be about 5 ft long, containing only one layer, capable of holding approximately 25 ft of core, and substantially made of /2-in. lumber. Each row of cores shall be separated from tlie adjacent row by a /i-in. wood strip. Cores from each run shall be separated from those of the next run by a wooden block nailed into place. If cores from more than one boring are placed in the same box, two wooden blocks shall be nailed between cores from adjacent borings. On each of these two blocks, the boring number referring to the adjacent core shall be marked. On the lid and ends of each box shall be clearly marked the job desig- nation, boring number, core runs, and the elevation or depth for each run. 22.7 RECORDS 22.7.1 SCOPE Full and complete records of all pertinent data shall be kept. All items listed in Articles 22.7.2, 22.7.3 and 22.7.4 shall be included. 22.7.2 GENERAL (a) Name of railroad and site. (b) Location and identifying number of test boring and reference to permanent survey data. Manual Recommendations 107 (c) Date of start and completion of boring. (d) Name of contractor, boring foreman, inspectors, and engineer. (e) Ground smface elevation at each boring and datum used, preferably United States Geodetic Suney datum. (f) Elevation of ground water or surface of vi'aterway. 22.7.3 BORINGS— DRY SAMPLE ( a ) Diameter and description of casing ( when used ) . (b) Weight and drop of hammer and number of blows used to drive the casing for each successive foot of elevation. (c) Depths at which major changes in the character of the soil take place. (d) Type and diameter of sampler. (e) Method used to force sampler into soil. (f) If sampler is driven, weight of drop hammer used to drive sampler and number of blows required to drive it each 6 in. for each sample. (g) Elevation of bottom of sampler at the start of taking each sample, (h) Elevation to which sampler was forced into the soil. (i) The length of the sample obtained. (j) The stratum represented by the sample. (k) Detailed description of the soil in each major stratum, to include: (1) Kind: Top soil, fill, clay, sand, gravel, etc. (2) Color: Light, dark blue, red, etc. (3) Moisture: Dry, moist, wet, very wet, etc. (4) Consistency: Loose, soft, compact, stiff, etc. 22.7.4 CORE BORINGS (a) Elevation of bottom of casing when seated according to Article 22.5.3.2. (b) Type of core drill, including size of core. (c) Length of core recovered for each 5-ft length drilled, with resulting per- centage of recovery, and Rock Quality Designation. (d) Elevation of each change in type of rock. (e) Elevation of bottom of core hole. (f) The rock shall be described in accordance with the following classification: ( 1 ) Shale, slate, limestone, sandstone, granite, etc. (2) Condition: Broken, fissured, laminated, solid, etc. (3) Hardness: Soft, medium hard, very hard, etc. (g) Rate at which each 5-ft section was cored in minutes per foot. 22.8 INSPECTION No drilling shall be done except in the presence of the engineer or his inspector. No more than two drilling crews working in the same vicinity at tlie same time shall be covered by one inspector. The engineer shall establish bench marks for the deter- mination of the required elevations, check the log of the boring to determine tliat the information designated in Section 22.7 is being obtained, and to establish its Bui. euo 108 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association accuracy, and see that all soil samples and cores are properly boxed and stored in a suitable place or shipped to the designated destination. 22.9 CLEANING SITE After completion of the work, the casing shall be withdrawn, all equipment and other material removed, and all holes closed as directed by the engineer. The renumbering of present Part 22 as Part 23 and the adoption of new Part 22 will require certain editorial changes in other parts of Chapter 8, as follows: Page 8-1-2: In the last line of Article 5, change the reference to Part 22 to Part 23. Page 8-3-4: Change the last sentence of the first paragraph of Article 3.2.4.2 to read, "The borings shall be made in accordance with tlie AREA recommenda- tions in Part 22, tliis Chapter." Page 8-20-2: Change .Article 2 — Soil Investigation, to read, "The characteristics of the foundation soils shall be investigated as specified under Part 22, this Chapter." Report on Assignment 4 Concrete Components for Timber Trestles E. E. RuxDE (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Baker, J. W. DeValle, C. W. Harman, J. R. IwEsrsKi, J. E. Scroggs, J. R. Williams. Your committee submits for adoption and publication in Chapter 8 of the Manual, the accompanying drawing entitled, "Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle." Manual Recommendations 109 AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP AND/OR SILL FOR TIMBER PILE TRESTLE 0" TO 8" "X" SPACES AT. 8" EACH VARIES ^ f^ 7 1 1 1 1 1 |^il>HOLE 1 1 1 1 PLAN VIEW 0" TO 8" 4" "X" SPACES AT 8" EACH il'>HOLE i I ELEVATION GENERAL NOTES 1. CAP TO BE MANUFACTURED IN ACCORDANCE WITH A.R.E.A. SPECIFICATION 8-17. 2. CONCRETE = 6,000 PSI AT 28 DAYS 3. CEMENT = A. S.T.M. CI50 UNLESS NOTED 4. AGGREGATES = V4" MAX. 5. STRAND = A. S.T.M. A4I6 6. REINFORCING = A. S.T.M. A82 7. FINISH = AS FORMED, FREE FROM HONEYCOMBS OR VOIDS 8 ALL HOLES TO BE OPEN, FULL SIZE AND TRUE. CLOSED OR MISALIGNED HOLES MUST BE REAMED OUT TO FULL SIZE BEFORE LEAVING PLANT. 9 TAPERED CAP WEIGHS 222 LBS. PER LIN. FT. RECTANGULAR CAP I4l/2"x 15", WEIGHS 226 LBS. PER LIN. FT. 10 IT IS INTENDED THAT THE UNIT WILL BE CAST IN THE UP-SIDE DOWN MANNER SO THAT THE BEARING SURFACE FOR THE STRINGERS WILL BE SMOOTH AND FLAT. THE TAPER SHOWN IS FOR EASE OF REMOVAL FROM FORMS. THE UNIT MAY BE CAST IN THE RECTANGULAR SHAPE WITHOUT TAPER AT THE OPTION OF THE MANUFACTURER. II. FOR DETAILS OF HARDWARE AND FASTENINGS REFER TO CHAPTER 7 OF THE MANUAL. 250 SPIRAL AT 31/2 IN, PITCH 12-1/2 IN Dl A, 250'< STRANDS AT 24,600 LBS EACH TYPICAL SECTION TOLERANCES OVERALL DIMENSIONS: LENGTH -2 IN. WIDTH ±1/4 IN. DEPTH +1/8 IN. ALIGNMENT: VARIATION FROM STRAIGHT LINE HORIZONTALLY ±1/4 in. VERTICALLY +'/8IN. HOLE SPACING: 8 IN +1/2 IN. THE V4" CHAMFER AT THE TOP CORNERS SHALL BE SPECIFIED AS A MAXIMUM. 110 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Manual Recommendations Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast Report on Assignment 2 Ballast C. E. Webb (chairman, subcommittee), R. J. Bennett, E. W. Burkhardt, H. K. Eggleston, G. E. Ellis, M. B. Hansen, R. D. Hellweg, J. K. Lynch, F. P. Nichols, W. B. Peterson, J. F. Scheumack, R. H. Uhrich. Your committee recommends for adoption and publication in Part 2, Chapter 1 of the Manual, the following material to replace the existing material on pages 1-2-1 tlirough 1-2-5. Page 1-2-6 is to be designated Section 2.12, and the ballast sections on pages 1-2—7 and 1-2-8 and graphs 1 through 4 are reapproved without change. Part 2 Ballast 2.1 TYPES OF BALLAST A variety of materials may be processed into railroad ballast; however, quarried stone or slags generally are most desirable when produced in a crushing-screening plant designed to satisfy the specifications listed herein. 2.2 SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE In computing volumes, a shrinkage factor of 12^ to 15% is suggested for use in estimating volume differential from loose to compacted state. It is recommended that laboratory tests be conducted if shrinkage factor is considered of high importance. 2..3 CLEANING FOUL BALLAST Proper cleaning of existing, in-place ballast will miprove drainage. Under usual conditions, no ballast except stone or slag should be cleaned. Clean crib to at least bottom of ties. Depth of cleaning may vary due to local conditions and choice of machinery After cleaning, apply sufficient new ballast to produce the standard section. 2.4 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PROCESSED STONE AND SLAG BALLAST 2.4.1 Scope These specifications cover the rcconinu'iKlctl vcciiiircinents for grading and otlicr significant physical properties of slag and crushed stone for processed ballast. Manual Recommendations HI 2.4.2 General Requirements Processed ballast shall be crushed stone, crushed air-cooled blast furnace slag, crushed steel furnace slag, or crushed smelter slag, composed of hard, sti-ong and durable particles, free from injurious amounts of deleterious substances and con- forming to the requirements of these specifications. The type, or types, and sizes of processed ballast and laboratory tests shall be designated by tlie engineer. 2.4..*^ Quality Requirements Deleterious substances shall not be present in processed ballast in excess of the following amounts: Soft and friable pieces 5 percent Material finer than No. 200 sieve 1 percent Clay lumps 0.5 percent 2.4.4 The percentage of wear of processed ballast, tested in the Los Angeles machine, shall not be greater than 40 percent except as otherwise specified by tlie engineer. NOTE: The percentages of wear determined on samples from the same source by ASTM Methods C 131, C 535, or either method using different gradings, have no known consistent relationship to one another. Tests have shown that losses under C 535 were about 5% higher than under C 131 on slag ballast, were somewhat higher on carbonate materials, and tended to be lower on igneous materials. Where known, service records or previous test data make it economically advisable to permit percentages of wear in excess of 40% when tested by the prescribed method, such higher losses may be pennitted in the special provisions; however, tlie engineer is warned against permitting losses in excess of 50^ without through investigation of all factors. Conversely, when the wear loss material is very fine and powdery, the engineer should make thorough investigation of other properties, in particular their possible plasticity and drainage inliibition characteristics. 2.4.5 The soundness of processed ballast for use in regions where freezing tempera- tures are expected shall be such that when tested in the sodium sulfate soundness test, the weighted average loss shall not be in excess of 17c after 5 cycles. 2.4.6 The weight per cubic foot (compacted) of processed slag ballast meeting the grading requirements of this specification shall not be less than 70 lb for blast- furnace slag and 100 lb for steel furnace slag and smelter slag. 2.4.7 The percentage by weight of flat or elongated particles permitted in tlie ballast shall not exceed 5%. Flat or elongated particles are defined as iiarticlcs ha\'ing a lengtii that is equal to, or greater than, five times tlie average thickness. 112 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 2.4.8 Grading Requirements The grading of processed ballast shall be determined by test with laboratory sieves having square openings and confonning with current ASTM Specifications, designation E 11. NOTE: In laboratory tests, a sieve with square opening D will permit approximately the same size of material to pass as a screen with round opening 1.2D. 2.4.9 Crushed stone and crushed slag for processed ballast shall conform to the following requirements for grading or as otherwise specified by the engineer. Nominal Size, Size Square No. No. No. Opening 3" 2^" 2" 1%." 1" H" Vz" V»" 4 8 24 2^"- M" 100 90-100 ..25-60 .. 0-10 0-5 3 2 "-1 " .. 100 95-100 35-70 0-15 .. 0-5 4 lyi"- H" ■■ ■■ 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 ..0-5 5 I "- H" ■■ ■■ ■■ 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5 57 1 "-No. 4 .. .. .. 100 95-100 .. 25-60 .. 0-10 0-5 2.5 HANDLING Processed ballast shall be handled at the producing plant in such a marmei that it is kept clean and free from segregation. It shall be loaded only into cars which are in good order, tight enough to prevent leakage and waste of material, and \\'hich are clean and free from rubbish or any substance which \\'ould foul or damage the ballast. The producer should not make repeated passes of equipment over the same levels in stock pile area. 2.6 INSPECTION The railroad reserves the right to reject any car of ballast arriving at the site for imloading that does not conform to the specification as detennined by methods of test in Section 2.8. 2.7 TESTING Determinations of deleterious substances, resistance to abrasion and soundness shall be made at a testing laboratory selected by the purchaser, but visual inspection and gradation tests shall be made at the place of production prior to shipment as often as considered necessary. 2.7.1 Samples of the finished product for gradation and other required tests shall be taken from each 200 tons of prepared ballast, unless otherwise ordered by the engineer. The sample shall be representative and shall weigh not less than 100 lb. 2.7.2 Prior to installation, the supplier shall provide tlie engineer witli certified test results of ballast quality and grading as conducted by a testing laboratory accepted by the engineer. If, during ballast installation, the supplier changes the source of ballast, additional certified test results shall be provided. The supplier shall receive concurrence of the engineer as to the use of testing laboratory to make the afore- mentioned tests. Manual Recommendations 113 The supplier shall certify the ballast delivered to the railroad is typical of that upon which specified tests have been made. 2.8 METHODS OF TEST 2.8.1 Samples shall be secured in accordance with the current ASTM Methods of Sampling, designation D 75. 2.8.2 Sieve analysis shall be made in accordance with current ASTM Method of Test, designation C 136. 2.8.3 Material finer than the No. 200 sieve shall be determined in accordance with the current ASTM Method of Test, designation C 117. 2.8.4 The percentage of soft particles shall be determined in accordance with the ASTM Method of Test, designation C 235-1968. 2.8.5 The percentage of clay lumps shall be determined in accordance with the current ASTM Method of Test, designation C 142. 2.8.6 The resistance to abrasion shall be determined in accordance with the current ASTM Method of Test, designation C 131 or C 535, using the standard grading most nearly representative of the size of ballast specified. 2.8.7 Soundness tests shall be made in accordance with tlie current ASTM Method of Test, designation C 88. 2.8.8 The weight per cu])ic foot shall be determined in accordance with the current ASTM Metliod of Test, designation C 29. 2.9 MEASUREMENT 2.9.1 When ballast is paid for by the ton, each car shall be weighed if tliat is prac- ticable. If it is impracticable to weigh each car, the weight per cubic yard shall be obtained by weighing at such intervals as may be ordered by tlie engineer, not less than five cars loaded with ballast, the contents of which have been carefully measured. The weight per cubic yard obtained by such a test shall be used in calculating the weight per car until additional tests are made. 114 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 2.9.2 \Vlien ballast is paid for by tlie cubic yard, the quantity shall be determined, when practicable, by applying tlie weight per cubic yard as deteniiined in 2.9.1 abo\e. When impracticable to determine the weight per cubic yard, the contents of each car shall be carefully estimated by comparison with cars, the contents of which have been accurately measured. 2.10 SPECIFICATIONS FOR SUB-BALLAST As in the case of ballast, a wide range of materials may be used as sub-ballast, depending on economics and availability. Ordinarily, sub-ballast will not include superior side-borrow materials but will be selected to conform to specifications and, therefore, will consist of imported materials that are hauled to the job location. The tliickness of tlie sub-ballast to be placed on the completed subgrade may vary, but excellent results have been obtained with a thickness of 12 in. Where practical, sub-ballast should be placed in layers and thoroughly compacted in accordance with standard practice for the formation of roadway so as to form a stable foimdation for the ballast. Materials intended for use as sub-ballast shall conform to current ASTM desig- nation D 1241 as to quality. A suggested dense graded aggregate is listed below: Sieve Size 2" 1" %" No. 10 No. 40 No. 200 % Passing (Optimum) 100 95 67 38 21 7 Pennissible Range % Passing 100 90-100 50-84 26-50 12-30 0-10 2.11 PROCEDURE FOR REPLACING BALLAST AND SUB-BALLAST BY TRACK REMOVAL 2.11.1 Preparation The area where the turnout or track is to be temporarily stored during the undercutting is to be cleared and leveled to the extent tliat possible damage to track is minimized. Provision for temporary roadways, stockpiles for material and room to place excavated material shall be provided. Provisions for communication and signal work and lights as necessary shall be made. 2.11.2 Removal of Track Switches and tracks shall be removed carefully and placed in a location sufficiently far away from its original position to allow the ties to be in the clear of the cut slope of the excavated area. The end of ties in their temporaiy location should be not less than 3 ft from the end of ties in their original location where practical. 2.11.3 Excavation Existing material shall be remoxed to a minimum depth of 1.5 ft, plus or minus 0.1 ft, below bottom of crossties. Vertical cut shall be made at tlie face of the ties that are left in the track to the full 1.5 ft depth. Excavation shall extend in width to a point 2.0 ft beyond end of original tic location. Manual Recommendations 115 2.11.4 Proof-Rolling Subgrade Before placing new dense-graded aggregate, the subgrade shall be proof-rolled using a dump truck or similar rubber-tired vehicle, fully loaded. Where soft places are located, tliese shall be undercut 6 in. and backfilled with dense-graded aggregate meeting specification for sub-ballast. The aggregate shall be compacted sufficiently to produce a uniform sul)grade support. 2.11.5 Construction of Base (Sub-ballast Section) Dense-graded aggregate shall be applied in layers that, when compacted, shall be not greater than 6 in. deep each. Water shall be added to facilitate compaction when material is too dry. Rolling may be by pneumatic-tired equipment heavily loaded or by vibratory roller. Small vibrators or pneumatic tampers shall be used at ends of work where roller cannot work. All compaction effort shall be uniformly distributed so that both layers are compacted to 100% ASTM D 698 density. 2.11.6 Subdrainage Installations Where possible, and required, top of subdrainage pipe shall be placed no higher than 18 in. below base of tie where pipe runs under track. Clean top ballast shall be placed around pipe. 2.11.7 Depth of Ballast Ballast should be a minimum of 6 in. deep and restored to approved section. 2.11.8 Replacing Track Part of the new ballast should be placed on the sub-ballast and the track moved back into place. Remaining ballast shall be dumped in the track. Track is to be given its initial surface. Complete surfacing can be completed under traffic. 2.11.9 Side Ditches Side Ditches shall be restored promptly to protect the new installation. Report on Assignment 3 Natural Waterways F. H. McGuiGAN (chairman, suh committee), A. C. Altschaeffl, B. E. Butehbaugh, R. T. Haggerstrom, B. J. Johnson, J. A. Kuhn, K. J. Ludwig, J. L. \^ickers, S. S. Vinton. Your committee suljmits for adoption and publication in Part 3, Chapter 1 of the Manual the following revised Sections to replace die data now appearing on Manual pages 1-3-8 to 1-3-30, incl. 3.4 PREVENTION OF STREAM EROSION 3.4.1 GENERAL This section deals with drainage of the ground surface by natural waterways as distinguished from the surface and subsurface drainage of tlie roadway. The latter subject is dealt widi in Part 1 — Roadbed, and Part 4 — Culvei-ts. 116 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association The following recommendations are to be considered guidelines to control erosion and silting during construction, for preventive efforts, and for future main- tenance \\ork as required. Flood flows in a stream may scour out the stream bed temporarily to a depth two or three times the rise in water level. For this reason, any protection placed on the stream bed should be flexible enough to move with the bed without being undermined. Remedial work to protect an eroding bank may consist of a channel cut-off, dikes, jetties or groins to shift the channel, or revetment to protect the bank in place. Some of tliese metliods may require State approval, particidarly in instances where the installation might be construed as an artificial obstruction. For work in apphcable areas, the District office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers should be contacted in regard to permits for the work. Also, the experience of the Corps with any particular river can be helpful in deciding on the type of work to be done. 3.4.2 CHANNEL CUT-OFFS Channel cut-offs are usually feasible only on small, winding streams which do not involve either access, right-of-uay or legal problems. Normally a closure dam is constructed across the upper end of the old channel to insure diversion of water to the new channel. A cut-off usually increases the gradient of the stream, thus resulting in higher stream velocity and a greater tendency to meander. Bank protection appropriately placed can minimize any tendency for the stream to start meandering from the downstream end up through the new channel. 3.4.3 PERMEABLE DIKES, JETTIES OR GROINS Permeable dikes, jetties or groins function by slowing the velocity of the current of a silt-carr>'ing stream, thus reducing the erosion of tlie stream bank and causing the suspended silt to be deposited downstream of the dike structures. In general, the heavier the silt load in the stream, the more effective tliese structures will be. Small debris carried by the stream during rises catches on die penneable dikes and adds to their effectiveness. Large accumulations of debris and heavy drift often damage these structures either due to scour or impact. An excellent report on details of design and construction of permeable dikes as well as other protective devices has been prepared by the California Division of Highways ( 1 ) . Many different methods and materials may be used for permeable dikes. Those most commonly used are discussed in more detail below. 3.4.3.1 Timber Pile Dikes Timber pile dikes have been used at many locations on silt-carrying rivers. The silt is essential for effective function. The usual installation includes spurs extending from the bank to tlie edge of the channel and a longitudinal section, often called a "trail dike," extending downstream from the channel end of the spur. An example of these components is shown as Fig. 1. Spacing of the spurs depends on the curvature of tlie bank being protected and is usually 1.5 to 2.0 times the length of the spurs. Spur dikes are susceptible to damage from floating ice and drift. To protect against bottom scour and erosion at the bank, riprap can be placed along the dike. Stream flow and velocity will determine die maximum size and quantity of riprap required to protect each dike or series of dikes at any location. Manual Recommendations 117 .SecooiBonW Trail Dike, Fig. 1 118 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association For specifications for riprap refer to Articles 3.6.4.2 tlirough 3.6.4.4. In this instance a\'erage size of riprap is not determined by wave height, but rather by the weight required at the location in question sufficient to avoid displacement during extreme flood conditions. Installation on larger ri\ers requires marine equipment which usually necessi- tates the ser\'ices of a contractor; those on smaller streams can often be built with land-based equipment. Untreated timber piles have a service life of 10 years or more. If the installation is effective it will be covered with silt by that time and no longer needed. If it is not effective it will need replacement by some other type of construction before the end of its service hfe. Therefore, it is usually not economical to use treated timber piles. (3 and 4). Details of a typical timber dike installation are shown in Fig. 2. . : ! Ii ' 1 i.i IJ UJ 11 U * r- n ! 1 1 1 ' • ; i :"! r" '- . ; :. ;ili^; \ !:!: i; IJ u lLi'J U \U '.: tJ R!V£k a£Cr^ ^-DUMPEC RIPRAP PILE CLUMP ^/&GALV.CC\BLE ^/a'GALV.CAeL STR///G£k ^TRINGfER ^^.•'O ' ,C7 5 TRINGER 5Pl /C£ DETAIL Fig. 2 Manual Recommendations 119 \^A//0. (h WIR£ LACING, PER L£G, 2-^/4r"M/N.CABLES AND IZ.5 *C. TO C. :5«AC/Aya Fig. 3 3.4.3.2 Steel Jetties Steel jetties are generally constructed widi a scnies of units, or various expedient materials such as old automobile or car bodies, normally cabled together and secured to the bank to insure action as a group. Units have been used eflectively on silt-carrying rivers in the Southwest. A unit is made of three steel angles, or rails, bolted together at their mid-points and at right angles to each other. The unit legs are laced together with No. 6 gauge galvanized wire threaded through spaced holes in each leg. Fabricated units siuiilar to die one shown in Fig. 3 are available commercially. 3.4.3.3 Crib Dikes Where a river bottom is bed rock, crib dikes are frequently utilized. They are composed of log cribs approximately 10 ft square and filled with rock. Several cribs are cabled together to form a dike extending out from die bank. Dowels drilled 120 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association in the rock bed help maintain tlie dikes in position in rivers carrying high-velocity currents, or large quantities of ice. Crib dikes serve much the same as pile dikes except that no protective riprap is required because of the rock bottom. 3.4,3.4 Stone Dikes Dikes composed of quarry-run stone, extending outward from the bank to the edge of the channel, are relatively inexpensive and have been successful on some rivers. They are usually constructed approximately perpendicular to the stream flow or angled as much as 10° downstream from die perpendicular. These dikes should be weU-keyed into the bank. Quarry-run stone should meet the same requirements as tliose listed under Article 3.6.4.2 with modification suggested in Article 3.4.3. Stream velocity will detennine the maximum size of stone required for satisfactory performance of a dike. The top of the dike should, if practicable, be wide enough to accommodate stone-hauling trucks. Sloping the top of the dike from the bank to low- water level at the outer end reduces cost without sacrificing effectiveness. Side slopes of the dike of 1/2:1 to 2/2:1 are common. Stone dikes are particularly effecti\ e protection for banks along streams carrying a minimum silt load. 3.4.4 GABIONS Gabions are large compartmented stone-filled boxes made from high-grade steel wire mesh often coated to resist corrosion. The stone-filling can either be quarry stone or river-bed cobbles. Stone 4 to 12 in. in size can be used with the minimum size being larger than the mesh opening. Gabions are flexible and thus adjust with changes in the stream bed and can be utilized in a wide variety of situations in- cluding stacking in layers as need be. They are commercially available in a variety of sizes. The use of clean stone in filling gabions, and exercising care to avoid large voids, insures stabihty, as well as permeabilit)'. Placing gabions on a non-woven plastic fabric enhances their value as revetments, by minimizing risk of scour of the founda- tion material. Good stability, permeability and flexibility of these easily constructed structures readily adapts them for use as check-dams. Some additional perspectives on gabions use can be found in References 4, 6 and 8. 3.4.5 REVETMENTS Revetments are used to line stream banks continuously to prevent erosion and protect the imderlying bank material. To prevent scour at the toe of a revebnent, the installation is usually extended a distance, depending on material used, into the stream. If the bank being protected is located on a bend in the stream, the revebnent should extend through the limits of the bend and each end of the revetment must be well keyed to prevent out-flanking by erosion. The downstream end of tlie revet- ment must extend beyond the point where there is risk of bank erosion to preclude undercutting of the protection. The life of a revetment is largely dependent upon the manner in which the banks have been prepared to receive it. The bank should be graded to a slope preferably not steeper than 3:1. A toe trench filled with stone should be provided. When reasonably available, riprap is normally used for revetment construction. Asphalt paving and articulated concrete slabs have also been used for revetment Manual Recommendations 121 construction in special situations, usually major in size and at locations where alternate material is not reasonably available. Except in instances where erosion conditions are minimal tiius permitting tlie use of a good quality quarry-run riprap, it is recommended tliat a filter blanket of either crushed stone, slag, or gravel be placed under all riprap installations. Non- woven polyester fabric can also be used effectively as filter blanket material. Filter blankets are not usually required under asphalt pavement or articulated concrete slab revetments. The minimum thickness of riprap should be twice tlie average dimension of the largest stones. Maximum size of riprap will be determined by the severity of antici- pated attack and can range up to as much as 500 lb. Gradation for both filter blanket material and riprap can be developed on the basis of recommendations found in Articles 3.6.4.2 through 3.6.4.4. Riprap can be delivered either by truck, air-dump car, or barge, depending upon site conditions. Placement by either dragline, dozer, backlioe or similar equipment is normal practice. Of particular importance is uniform distribution without any segregation by size. On large installations it is particularly desirable to start placement at the bottom of the slope. (Reference Nos. 3, 4 and 5 offer additional prospectives ) . 3.4.6 CHECK DAMS Check dams are used to reduce erosion by reducing stream gradients in those streams where only a small reduction in velocity will induce setdement of suspended silt. They can be used in side ditches, intercepting ditches, or where the upstream approaches to bridges or culverts are very steep. Generally, risk of erosion is minimal where stream velocity is 6 ft./sec, or less. Check dams not only control stream bed erosion, but also serve to dissipate hydraulic energy at the vertical drop below each installation. They are made of various materials such as steel sheet piles, mass concrete, concrete or metal cribs, treated timbers, gabions, riprap, or any other suitable materials. An apron below the dam is recommended to prevent undermining of the structure. 3.4.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY ( 1 ) "Bank and Shore Protection in California Highway Practice," California Divi- sion of Highways, November 1970. (2) Proceedings, AREA Vol. 56, p. 679. (3) Proceedings, AREA \'ol. 58, p. 717. (4) Proceedings, AREA \'ol. 60, p. 657. (5) Transactions, ASCE Vol. 132, p. 211. (6) Transactions, ASCE \^ol. 134, p. 559. (7) Transactions, ASCE Vol. 134, p. 878. (8) "Civil Engineering," March 1974, Vol. 44, No. 3, p. 68. 122 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 3.5 MEANS OF PROTECTING ROADBED AND BRIDGES FROM WASHOUTS AND FLOODS 3.5.1 GENERAL Adequate protection against floods and washouts is essential not only for main- tenance of dependable service, but also to avoid heavy expenditures to replace damaged facihties and restore operation. 3.5.2 ROADWAY 3.5.2.1 Temporary Protection 0\ erflow of embankment from eitlier direct flow or backwater frequently results in w aslies on the roadbed shoulder being overtopped. Risk of washout is in proportion to the amount of heading of water at the location of attack. Blanketing tlae overflow slope with hea\y material such as riprap or sandbags or raising the shoulder heights witli sandbags or ballast can proxide temporary protection. Fills subject to wash and cutting banks can be protected by riprap, sandbags, old automobile bodies, or other available heavy material that is not readily displaced by tlie current. Sloughing and shdes are usually most severe when the water recedes as die embankment and bank are saturated. Soil conditions and rapidity at which the water recedes are primary factors in the incidence of sloughing and slides. 3.5.2.2 Permanent Protection In overflow territories, careful investigation is necessary to insure adequacy not only as to size, but also to location for waterway openings. Sufficient capacity of openings and, if necessary, provision for additional rehef openings is essential to minimize heading during floods. In overflow bottoms where eitlier a charmel change, installation of additional openings, or a track raise or relocation do not afford sufficient rehef, consideration should be given to facing the doxxTistream side of the roadbed at least at critical locations with riprap or other suitable means of slope protection. Depending upon service requirements, a track raise is generally the best assur- ance for dependable operation. On light traffic lines where extensive measures such as a track raise or slope protection cannot be justified, consideration might be given to anchoring the track to the roadbed by cable tied to rail, woodpile or screw anchors installed in the roadbed midway between the rails at appropriate spacing through the overflow area. Under these conditions, use of heavy, coarse ballast reduces the incidence of ballast washes. Roadbed subject to side wash can be protected by revetments, dikes or channel changes as discussed in Articles 3.4.3, 3.4.3.4 or 3.4.3.5. 3.5.3 BRIDGES 3.5.3.1 Temporary Protection Need for temporary protection often arises during floods, and calls for exercise of resourcefulness, including the use of locally available material to protect against washout at or beyond the ends of the structure and undercutting of the substructures. Drift, ice and other floating matter should be kept mo\'ing through die structure to avoid risk of accumulation of diis material with consequent buildup of pressure against the structure, as well as incidence of scour from eddy currents. Manual Recommendations 123 Riprap can be used to protect embankment at die ends of the structure as well as against scour of substructure. Sandbags filled with any locally available material such as sand, ballast, chat, screenings and gravel provide satisfactory slope protection. 3.5.3.2 Permanent Protection Bridges and other drainage openings must have sufficient waterway to preclude heading of flood runofts, tlius avoiding risk of cutting velocities. In areas where either drift or ice poses problems, the opening should include adequate clear span to minimize risk of accumulation of diis material at the structure. Riprap revetment on the embankment at tlie bridge ends extending beyond tlie abutments is advisable in territoiy subject to rapid runoff. In instances of high embankment constructed on alluvial ground, extending the bridge end protection as a blanket well into tlie natural channel readily provides added stability to the embankment at the bridge ends as well as minimizing undesirable scour under the structure. Lack of sufficient opening is justification for extension of tlie bridge structure, provision for relief openings, or installation of additional culvert openings sufficient to minimize risk of unacceptable heading. Dumped riprap provides good protection if maximum size and quantity are adequate to resist displacement by stream velocities against scour of piling and piers in the event of shallow penetration or depth. Serious conditions of this nature, or in instances of scour, underpinning or even replacement of tlie threatened substruc- ture member may be necessary for continued safety of operation. Change in channel alignment upstream of any drainage structure can have serious consequence due to shift in tlie direction of stream flow with resultant creation of eddy and scour conditions detrimental to both tlie drainage structure and the adjacent roadbed embankment. Installation in the channel upstream of the drainage structure of appropriate protection against stream erosion as suggested in Section 3.4 will restore and control the approach direction of the stream to accept- able condition. In some instances levee construction is also justified to control flood flows over natural ground out of the channel limits. Except in instances of extended exposure to high velocity currents or need to use local material which is subject to washing, protection of tlie upstream face of the levee may not be required to prevent erosion. Culvert openings should have sufficient capacity to avoid heading. The location of the inlet and alignment through the embankment should be designed to minimize incidence of eddy currents. Use of wingwalls, either straight or flared, assists in control of current at the inlet and outlet of the structure. Provision for aprons and curtain walls of concrete or riprap minimize risk of erosion. In instances of steep stream gradients, installation of a check dam or dams below the structure aids in the dissipation of hydraulic energy and reduces risk of scour extending back under the outlet. In instances where existing drainage structures are replaced as service life is exhausted or for otiier reasons, careful review should be made of the adequacy of the openings and requirements for clear span to pass drift, as well as alignment witli the stream thread to insure desired performance, particularly during heavy runoffs. Installation of drift-catching devices is not recommended due to the main- tenance normally required. 124 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 3.6 CONSTRUCTION AND PROTECTION OF ROADBED ACROSS RESERVOIR AREASi 3.6.1 GENERAL The construction and protection of roadbed across reservoir areas present many problems that are not encountered in normal roadbed constiiiction. Analysis of these problems can best be made by subdi\ iding the subject into three sections, as follows: Determination of Wave Heights Construction of Embankment and Roadbed Construction of Embankment Protection The tenn "reservoir area" as used in this report also includes lakes, natural and artificial river pools, and other inland waters on which waves may be generated. 3.6.2 DETERMINATION OF WAVE HEIGHTS Knowledge relating to \\ind \elocities o\'er land and over water, and wave heights on inland reser\ oirs, has increased in recent years as a result of studies made by the Coastal Research Center (fonnerly known as the Beach Erosion Board), and by tlie Corps of Engineers at Fort Peck Reservoir in northeast Montana, Denison Reservoir on the Oklahoma-Texas state hne, and Lake Okeechobee in Southern Florida. These studies resulted in tlie publication of Technical Memorandum No. 132, "Waves in Inland Reservoirs"^ by the Beach Erosion Board, essentially the same information having appeared in ASCE Proceedings Paper No. 3138 (May 1962), corrected May 1963. The methods subsequently described are adapted from Technical Memorandum No. 132, and are adequate for ordinary wave problems. For more extensive or complicated situations, the designer should refer to Technical Memorandum No. 132, or to Technical Report No. 4, "Shore Protection Planning and Design"" by the Beach Erosion Board, or to other references listed in these publications. Elements afiEecting the determination of wave heights may be listed as follows: 3.6.2.1 Effective Fetch (F) Fetch, or the distance over which the wind blows, was originally designated as the greatest straight-line distance across open water. Subsequent studies have shown that the shape of an open-water area affects tlie effective fetch. For a given size and shape of water area, effective fetch is determined by laying out seven radials at 6-deg intervals on each side of a central line through the point under study, extending them to their point of intersection with tlie shore line. The scaled component of each radial's projection on the central radial is then multiplied by the cosine of its angle witli the central radial. The sum of these values divided by the sum of the cosines determines the effective fetch (F) for that location. An example of this calculation is shown in Fig. 4. 3.6.2.2 Wind Velocity (U) Wind velocities over water are higher than over land, and although individual observed values may vary considerably, average values for this relationship have been obser\'ed as follows: 1 References, Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 706, 1118; Vol. 57, 1956, pp. 649, 1080; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 578, 749; Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 523, 746. Manual Recommendations 125 Table 1- -Wind Relationship, Land To Water Fetch in Miles . . 0.5 1 2 4 6 and over Wind ratio '^'*'" . . Uland 1.08 1.13 1.21 1.28 1.31 Thus, a wind having a velocity of 40 mph over land could be expected to attain a \elocity of 40 X 1-28, or 51 mph over water if the effective fetch were 4 miles. 3.6.2.3 Minimum Wind Duration (ta) With wind velocity assumed to be constant over a particular fetch, the height of waves being generated will progressively increase with time up to a maximum value for that velocity. The minimum wind duration in minutes for producing this maximum wave can be determined from the dashed lines in Fig. 1, given the wind velocity in miles per hour and the effective fetch in miles. 3.6.2.4 Significant Wave Height (H.) Although successive waves in a group will vary in height, the significant wave height is defined as the average of the highest one-third of the waves being gener- ated, measured from trough to crest, and is deteniiined from tiie solid diagonal lines in Fig. 1. Since wind-generated waves on a large body of water are not uniform in height, the significant wave height thus determined will be exceeded approximately 13 percent of the time. 3.6.2.5 Specific, or Design, Wave Height (Ho) Wave studies have shown that wind-generated waves are not uniform in height, but consist of groups of waves with varying heights. Studies of inland reservoirs show the following relationship between the significant wave height (Hs) which is exceeded 13 percent of the time, and a selected specific wave height (Ho) ex- ceeded less frequently: Table 2 — Wave Height Distributions Ratio of Specific Wave Height Ho to Percent of Waves Exceeding Specific Wave Significant Wave Height Hs, (H„/H,) Height Ho m (2] 1.00 13 1.07 10 1.27 4 1.40 2 1.60 1 1.67 0.4 Having determined the significant wave height from Fig. 1, a design wave of acceptable frequency of occurrence is computed by multiplying H, by the correspond- ing ratio value in Table 2. A ratio of 1.87 is frequently used for the so-called maximum wave, but over extended periods of observation, individual waves may even exceed this value. 3.6.2.6 Wave Period (T) The significant wave period represents the average interval in seconds between successive waves, and is determined from Fig. 2. The resulting wave period is also applicable to the higher waves in the group. 126 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association anoH aid saii/Nj ni aiidoiba qnia^. Manual Recommendations 127 S ? 2 S ^ 1^ o anoH ti3d S3"ll^M ni aiidoiba qnim 128 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 2.6 Q. D 1-2 Z D 1.0 a. ^ 0.8 > I- < 0.6 _l 2 - '-I _ 1 - rg -^1 N N o U ^ r - - / / ^ / V' ■°; ^ / / / / ^y :^ '/ / / / ,."". 2 0) nj U " XI ^ (0 . a tp c r -H ^ c V, 0) r Ct< o V 4J u x: (tJ en z 3 -H r- cr O c 3 tn O E •< C) 2? C N -H D = b O S5 tn »| 1 o o 'a- o in in o i-i in .H o o O OJ : O O O (C -,H 4J \ I I I O tr* m C r-i ininoH 0) CN rn (ji x: U '"' U V< (CO) o W P< • ° O to in "^ x: cr. EH H I o OJ M <0 •0 in c r- 4J m c 4J c 0> Ul Id u x: u lu ■P 0) o n 3 CO m 10 V 0) <-t c h Id 3 +J x: n O 4J c: H 01 Id tT' u c c o o -H E •H > V Id 4J Id x: z c g c '0 • o CO c 0) u m c m tr o c w 4J •0 -H (1) tn 0) fQ O ■p «J (0 -o o< H U-( a) o &< x: •o •0 tn Id >^ 0) 3 o u M « • u-i O N 00 jj ■H ?* tn o tn n 1 4J (Q nj fO C l^ C VO 0) IH ■O •H I-l e Q) <1) 0) M m fH u u a a -H O TI o c 3 g •H ■ri o cr tn *i •H (1) ij c Id *i ^ o •o ^ N p* « 73 rt3 •H U 0) a 10 1 HEIGHT ABOVE: RAIL I LATERAL IzaOE SCARING TILT [ 3 SPR INGS r OiFFERCHC£JWH£IGMT_ ; __ LBpLSTER SWING fNEGLECTEpJ _..■_, . i RAILS- j-" DTFEaENCE IN H EIGHT AT 56^* C UCE te PANTOGRAPH SWAY CHART lA VALUES FOR M-U CARS PANTOGRAPH HClGHT ABOVE RAIL I LATERAL ,, ISlpE BEARING JfLT ^ 5CAR BOOr ROLL O') 1 BOLSTER^ SW^NG 3 RAILS -i^'oiFFEREWCE I W HEIGHT AT ^6^' GAGE e^ftlNTOGRAPH SIMr TOTAL S 8.80' (P) (C) AIR CLEARANCES CHART 2 CLEARANCES AT TUNNELS 8 BRIDGES TO GROUNDED STRttCTURES RECOMMENDED ELECTRICAL PASSING ELECTRICAL C (E) SUPER-ELEVA T [ON ALL OWANC E^ SUPER ELEVAnON c > inches la Displacement a: _ (4Fr ^ 19 FT. 2973 !. 4.035 HEIGHT ABOVE RAIL ■ ^2FT. [ 25FT A.672 5 309 18 68 23 36 :?8 03 21 24 26 55 31.86 BE DECREASED 17 83 ; INE OF T\ )GE. ALLOWANCE FOR SUPfR ELf variON IS MOVED OFF-CENTER TO COMPENSATE. (A) ALTITUDE COMPENSATION 3000 ■ 4^000 ■ 5000 - 6000 ■ 7OO0 ■ 8000 - 9000 4000 FT. 5000 FT 6OO0 F T rooo FT eooo FT. 9000 FT 10000 FT PROPOSED CLEARANCE SPECIFICATIONS TO PROVIDE FOR ELECTR(f:ICATION NO SCALE SEPTEMBER II. 13 142 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Part 6 Power Supply and Distribution 6.1 ELECTRIC HEATING 6.1.1 THAWING OF FROZEN WATER PIPES AND PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN The following is offered as a guide in the thawing of frozen water pipes by the use of electricity. Frozen water pipes may be thawed quickly and cheaply by means of electric power as electric energy is easily applied and excavation is seldom required. The necessary heating is obtained by using the pipe as a conductor and providing a source of high-current and low-voltage electricity. Eitlier alternating current or direct current may be used, the alternating cur- rent being direcdy supplied from nomial distribution circuits through either standard type transformers or welding transfomiers. Direct current may be supplied either through engine-driven or motor-driven arc welders. The time required to thaw depends on several factors as size and length of pipe, kind of material, location, extent of freeze, ambient temperature, etc., but in general, using the current indicated in the table, the times will vary from 5 to 30 minutes. The current is controlled by the following: 1. Correct voltage — usually 60 to 120 volts. 2. Varying tiie length of the pipe in the circuit. 3. Changing the reactance of the secondary circuit of the transformer which is accomplished by varying the number and size of loops inter- posed in the leads. In general, the current will vary from 100 to 800 amperes and from 10 to 120 volts depending on the size and lengtlr of pipe and soil conditions surrounding the pipe. Following are some general facts and precautions to be used in connection with this method of thawing pipe lines: 1. Connections of electric cables to the pipe should be at a point well cleaned from rust, scale and grease in order to get best contacts. 2. Cable should be connected as close to the frozen section of pipe as possible. 3. All connections should he tightly made and continually checked during the operation. 4. Service connections to the pipe should be inside of any other connec- tions to the pipe line such as lighting, telephone or other wires grounded to the plumbing. If the service connections cannot be made inside of these ground connections then all ground connections should be removed. 5. Disconnect water meters, gas meters and gas pipe systems from the water pipes. 6. Voltage should be kept as low as possible to prevent injuries to per- sons, curb stops and plumbing. Manual Recommendations 143 7. Use only as high a current in the circuit as is safe. Too high current may burn connections between pipes and melt lead joints and lead goose necks. It may be necessary to thaw the pipe in sections in order to prevent damage to such lead connections. 8. Connections may be made to corporation cocks, fire hydrants, valve stems, etc., but curb stops should be avoided as they may be damaged by the passage of current through them. 9. In using arc welding equipment care should be exercised in not operat- ing it at full load for longer periods than it is rated (normally one hour) as the set may be damaged. In cases where greater capacity is required the unit may be overloaded for short periods and then shut down. 10. In connection with thawing pipes in residences, the main switch and fuses of the lighting circuit should be disconnected. 11. A faucet or valve should be opened on the frozen line in order to allow circulation of water to occur as soon as thawing begins. Following table gives recommended values of current and voltage along with certain wire sizes to be used for various sizes of pipes. TABLE OF THAWING DATA Size and kind of pipe 100 Amperes 2-71/2 KVA Transf. 200 Amperes 2-15 KVA Transf. 300 Amperes 2—25 KVA Transf. Drop in pipe volts •Drop In #3 cu leads volts No-load transf. volts Drop In pipe volts •Drop in #1/0 cu leads volts No-load transf. volts Drop In pipe volts •Drop in #1/0 cu leads volts No-load transf. volts ^'' Steel 20 16 10 7 10 8 6 4 3 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 45 30 20 17 25 17 14 10 8 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 120 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 75 50 35 30 45 28 24 17 14 50 50 50 60 50 60 50 50 60 120 1» Steel 120 IH' Steel 120 2* Steel 3»C. I 120 120 4»C. I 120 6* C. I 120 8'C. I 120 ICC. I 120 Coanection Leads— 1,000 ft. of single conductor cu. wire. 6.1.2 GROUND PROTECTION SYSTEMS OF ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES When electric snowmelters are applied to track switches where track circuits are used in connection with signal or switch operation, it is necessary that the power system be maintained free from grounds. To accomplish this, it is recom- mended that some form of protective device or system be installed to protect sig- nal apparatus from damage or false operation due to heating cl(>ment or connecting leads becoming accidentally grounded to the running rails. In order to prevent fault currents from defective heaters or cables doing damage to signal apparatus, it is necessary to detect such currents before they reach a damaging value. Therefore, 144 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Associ ation the first power system ground must be detected before a second ground to the other rail can cause a voltage to be applied between the rails. The rails of a railroad track are neither normally grounded nor at exactly the same potential. The signal system depends on the shunting of a low voltage be- tween the two rails to indicate the occupancy of the track by locomotives or cars. Therefore, the two rails cannot be connected together in order to detect power sys- tem grounds to the rails. It has been determined by tests that 200 ohms connected between the rails will not shunt the typical railroad signal system. Thus, if two 100-ohm resistors are connected in series between the rails and the center point solidly grounded, a ground point is estal^lished with respect to both rails. It is now possible to connect a ground relay between the power system neutral and ground and use it to detect grounds to the nmning rails. A neutral point is obtained in a delta-connected power supply by connecting the primaries of three small transformers in wye to the power supply as shown in Figure 1. In event power supply is wye-connected, these trans- formers may be omitted. In a single-phase power supply system the grovmd relay is c-onnected to the center tap of the grounding transformer. Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram for a snowmelter installation in which a contactor is used to control the operation of the heaters from a 480-volt, three- phase power supply along with circuits used for ground detection. Operation of the c-ontrol circuits is as follows: 1. To turn on the heaters, the ON button of PB3 is pushed. PB3 must be a maintained contact-type push button with ON and OFF buttons. 2. Closing its contacts will energize the coil of RY3. 3. RY3 picks up, closing its contacts. 4. The closing of the contacts of RY3 energizes the coil of contactor IM. 5. When IM closes, its interlock closes the circuit to light the indicating light which shows that the contactor is closed. 6. If a ground occurs in the power system, relay RYl will be energized. 7. Contact of RYl will close to turn on die ground indicating light and energized relay RY2. 8. Normally closed contact of RY2 will open to drop out contactor IM. 9. Contact of RY2 will close to seal in RY2 and prevent cycling of the system when power is removed from tlie heaters. 10. With the contactor dropped out, the remote indicating light will be extinguished. 11. The grounded portion of the system can be isolated by opening all feeder breakers and resetting the control circuits. 12. The reset button, PB2, has a normally closed contact which will drop out RY3 and RY2 and extinguish the ground-indicating light when the reset button is pushed. 13. When PB2 is released, RY3 will again pick up to re-energize the contactors. 14. The feeder breakers can now be closed until the ground recurs indi- cating the feeder which is grounded. The above control and ground-detecting system is designed to protect the signal system from external \oltages between the rails by removing power in the event of a single ground to the rail. Manual Recommendations 145 u. to a o MU c f^ 6 -^ S4= u 3 K it r t-TrnFr- •O M KD il Tk WH "s/" 60 146 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 4«0V. z tnz tttt»tj fmnr iiov. - T 5p QrvI :R2 r «Y2: RVI ji RESET -tlf-l TEST a. OFF \_?!!^ II GROUNOUGHT 9L.IGMT lOOA lOOO m 1 M T TO RAILS t TO BKEAKER OM CONTACTOR Fig. 2 A second system to detect such grounds is described herewith: The Ground Detector is an extremely simple device requiring connections to only one of the three phases of the power supply and to ground. It consists of one small transformer with the center of the primary winding connected to the center of the secondary winding, two silicon rectifiers, a sensitive d-c relay, several resistors and an aaxiliary a-c relay. The rails are each grounded through 100-ohm resistors. Figure 2 shows the circuit diagram for an installation using this device. Opera- tion is as follows: 1. To turn on heaters, the ON button is pushed. 2. The closing of its contacts will energize tlie coil of RY2. 3. RY2 picks up closing its contacts and seals in. 4. The closing of the contacts of RY2 will energize the coil of the con- tactor contiolling the power to the heaters. 5. The ON LIGHT is also connected in multiple with RY 2 and will light when RY2 picks up. 6. If a ground occurs on the power system, a circuit will be completed through the center connection of the transformer, through tlie rectifiers and resistors to ground to pick up the RYl relay. Manual Recommendations 147 7. Normally closed contact of RYl will open to drop out RY2 and open the contactor to turn off power to the heaters and extinguish ON LIGHT. 8. Contact of RYl will close to turn on ground indicating light. 9. When RYl has been operated it will seal in until RESET button has been operated. 10. A TEST button is also included to check that the system is in working order. 6.1.3 SPECIFICATION FOR TUBULAR TYPE ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.3.1 Purpose This specification outlines standards as a basis for the manufacture and ac- ceptance of tubular electric heaters for application to the rails of railroad track switches. The heaters embody a resistance element to be supplied with electric energy. Their purpose is to furnish sufficient heat to prevent snow and ice from interfering with normal movement of switch points. 6.1.3.2 Basis of Purchase Orders for electric heaters under this specification shall include the following information: ( 1 ) Heaters shall confonn to Specification for Tubular Type Electric Heaters for Track Switches. (2) Active length of heaters. (3) Wattage rating and type of heaters. (4) Voltage ratings of heaters. (5) Type of terminal. (6) Length of flexible leads. (7) Size of rail to determine support and clamp size. (8) State if purchaser will furnish supports, etc. (9) State if anti-creep collar is not desired. (10) State whether tests are required. 6.1.3.3 Length (a) The active length of heaters for straight and curved switches shall be one foot less than length of switch. Recommended standard active lengths are: 15 ft. 6 in. 21 ft. 29 ft. 44 ft. 18 ft. 6 in. 25 ft. 38 ft. (b) The active length of heaters for movable point frogs shall be no longer than twice their center switch-point lengths, plus the distance between the two facing center switch-points minus six feet. 6.1.3.4 Wattage and Voltage Rating (a) Heaters shall be rated at 200, 300, 350, 400, or 500 watts per foot. The selection will depend on the size of rail and weather conditions. Graduated type heaters shall have high and low wattage sections of equal length. (b) The wattages specified in (a) are based on voltage rating of 230 or 460 volts. Any deviation from the rated voltage will affect the resultant wattage. 148 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Other voltages will require special heaters and should be so specified. Rated voltage heaters may be used at higher or lower voltages (the higher voltages must be within manufacturer's limits), but at a lower voltage consideration must be given to loss in wattage. (c) The following information shall be stamped on the terminal housing on one end of heater only (on high-heat end of graduated heaters) with 3/32-inch letters: 1. The word "Point" on high-heat end of graduated heaters. (May be located three inches from terminal housing on inactive section of heater). 2. Name of manufacturer. 3. Type and part number of heater. 4. Total wattage. 5. Watts per foot. 6. Voltage. 6.1.3.5 Outer Casing (a) The outer casing shall be of corrosion-resistant material. The finished wall thickness shall be 0.030 inch minimum for the following materials: 321 stainless steel, 347 stainless steel, incoloy, and inconel. For all other materials the finished wall thickness shall be 0.060 minimum. The maximum outside vertical dimension of the casing shall be 0.625 inch and the maximum outside horizontal dimension shall be 0.5 inch. (b) In addition to the active length of the heater, the casing shall include at each end an inactive portion 9 to 12 inches long of the same outer dimension and material — this to be measured from the end of the active portion to the inner end of the terminal housing. (c) There shall not be more than one splice per heater. The splice shall be centrally located and so designed and constructed as to provide a non-heating length of uniform strength throughout, and its section shall not exceed 0.75 inch in diameter and 6 inches in length. (d) Where there is no center splice, an anti-creep collar shall be provided at the center of the heater unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. Its section shall not exceed 0.75 inch in diameter and 6 inches in length. 6.1.3.6 Terminals The terminal housing between the heater and the lead shall provide an electri- cal cormection of the separable type to facilitate replacement of leads in the field. Nonseparable type terminal will be provided if so ordered. 6.1.3.7 Terminal Housing The terminal housing on each end of heater shall positively seal the heater tube against the entrance of moisture and provide an outer housing for the physical, electrical, and moisture protection of the electrical connection. The terminal hous- ing shall make use of corrosion-resistant materials for all metallic parts and non- wicking type materials for all electrical insulating parts. The terminal housing shall not exceed 1% inches in outside diameter and shall be round in cross-section. Manual Recommendations 149 6.1.3.8 Flexible Leads (a) The heater shall be provided at each end with a flexible lead of No. 6 AWG or larger copper cable of not less than 37 strands. (b) Cable insulation shall be 4/64 inch thick and shall meet ASTM Speci- fication D-754 requirements. It shall l^e of heat-resistant rubber compound over which shall be placed a sheath of oil-resistant compoimd 3/64 inch thick which shall meet ASTM Specification D-752 requirements. (c) The length of the flexible lead shall be 10 feet unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. 6.1.3.9 Accessories (a) Terminal Housing Supports The material for the terminal housing support shall be Va inch thick and cor- rosion resistant. The support shall be provided with holes for two attaching bolts % inch in diameter spaced a minimum of three inches apart for attaching the sup- port at the neutral axis of the rail. The width of the supporting surface in contact with the terminal housing shall be 1/2 inches. The support shall be made to allow lateral movement of the heater resulting from expansion and contraction. (b) Heater Support The material of the heater support shall he M inch by VA inches wide and corrosion-resistant. The height of the support will vaiy witli the rail size. See Fig. 1, Art. 6.1.4. The edges in contact with the heater shall be rounded to prevent cutting the heater tube. The support will provide for one attaching bolt % inch in diameter for attaching the support at the neutral axis for each type and size of rail. The support shall be made to allow lateral movement of the heater resulting from expansion and contraction. (c) Anti-Creep Collar The material of the anti-creep collar shall be Ys inch thick, not exceeding 6 inches wide, and corrosion resistant. The collar shall be permanently attached to the heater tube by suitable means, and at the center of the heater unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. (d) Anti-Creep Clamps The material of die anti-creep clamp shall be Ys inch thick by VA inches wide and corrosion resistant. The height of the clamp will vary with the rail size. The anti-creep clamp shall be made to prevent lateral movement of the heater due to vibration or expansion and contraction when the clamp is used instead of the anti- creep collar. The edges in contact with the heater shall be rounded to prevent cutting the heater tube. The anti-creep clamp will provide for one attaching bolt % inch in diameter for attaching the clamp at the neutral axis for each type and size of rail. (e) Attachment Bolts The attachment bolts shall be ?8-16 NC by 1% inches long and shall be provided with an external tooth lockwasher and one suitable all-metallic self-locking nut. The material of the bolt, lockwasher, and nut shall be Everdur 1015 bronze or other approved corrosion-resistant material. (f) The supports, collars, clamps, bolts, washers, and nuts shall be supplied by the manufacturer unless otherwise specified by the pinchaser. 150 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 6.1.3.10 Tests A The following tests shall be made on each heater: (a) Except as otherwise specified, high potential tests shall be made in accord- ance with latest AIEE standards. ( b ) Before receiving current the heater must withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute. (c) Heater exposed to free circulation of air at room temperature and having rated voltage impressed on the terminals shall have wattage within plus 10 percent and minus 5 percent of rated wattage. (d) The heater, including the tenuinals and leads, shall be submerged in water of a maximum temperature of 60 F for one hour at a pressure of at least 50 psi gage. Inmiediately upon removal from the water the heater shall withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute, and must have insulation resistance of at least 1000 megohms measured with a 1000- volt ohmmeter. (e) After the sheath temperature of the heater has been raised by the passage of current through its element for 10 minutes at rated voltage to equilibrium tem- perature or not more than 1000 F, the heater must withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute and must have insulation resistance of not less than one megohm as measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. B The following tests shall be made on two heaters of each length of a given lot if required by the purchaser: (a) A heater exposed to free circulation of air at 70 to 80 F shall withstand without damage, 125 percent of rated potential for 30 nu'nutes across the heater. Heater shall then withstand hi-pot test A (e). (b) After cooling, the heater under the same air condition as (a) shall with- stand, without damage, 133^/^ percent of rated potential for one minute across the heater. Heater shall then withstand hi-pot test A (e). 6.1.3.11 Drawings The manufacturer shall submit to tlie railroad for approval, in time to be approved and in the hands of the Inspector before the heaters, etc. are offered for inspection or shipment, four copies of all necessary drawings. 6.1.3.12 Warranty The manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship under ordinary use and sewice, his obligation vmder this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at the point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defecti\e witliin one year after shipment to the purchaser. The waiTanty shall not apply to any apparatus which shall have been repaired or altered in any way by anyone other than the manufacturer thereof so as to affect, in the manufacturer's judgment, its proper functioning or reliability, or which has been subject to misuse, negligence, or accident. Manual Recommendations 151 6.1.3.13 Shipment All heaters shall be shipped straight, without bends. The shipper shall pn)vidc' suitable physical protection to the heaters to prevent damage in shipment. 6.1.4 SPECIFICATION FOR INSTALLATION OF TUBULAR TYPE ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.4.1 Purpose This specification applies to the application of tubular electric heaters, supports, and clamps, specified in Specification for Tubular Type Electric Heaters for Track Switches. These installations shall be capable of supplying sufficient heat to keep snow and ice from interfering with normal movement of switch points. 6.1.4.2 Location of Heaters The heaters shall he located as high as practicable on the inside of the web of the rail, active part extending from two feet ahead of point of switch to vicinity of heel block. When graduated wattage-type heaters are used, the higher wattage end shall be installed toward the point of switch. 6.1.4.3 Application of Heaters (a) Heater shall be secured to the web of the rail by means of heater sup- ports spaced 18 inches to 24 inches apart. To clear bolts and rivets in reinforcing bar, it will be necessary in some cases to grind switch point and reinforcing bar to allow a minimum clearance of 3/16 inch. One support shall be located on rail just ahead of switch point. Special supports shall be provided for attacliing terminal housing to rail. All supports shall be secured by means of % inch corrosion re- sistant bolts. Rail shall be drilled in the neutral axis. Bolt hole shall be 13/32 inch in diameter. If required, the head of bolt shall be ground to provide 3/16 inch clearance between bolt head and reinforcing bar of the switch point. A heater sup- port shall be placed against botli ends of the anti-creep collar or spUce to prevent longitudinal movement. All other supports shall be arranged to allow longitudinal movement of heater as a result of expansion and contraction. The anti-creep clamp, if used, shall be firm against the heater. The accompanying drawing (Fig. 1) is furnished as a guide. (b) In the case of movable point frogs, a tubular type heater of uniform wattage, and length as determined in 6.1.3.3 (b) shall be applied to the knuckle rail casting on gage side of track. 6.1.4.4 Severe Temperature Conditions Where temperatures of zero degrees F or below are encountered, it may be found necessary to install ballast type heaters (see Specification for Electric Heaters for Ballast Under Track Switches) beneatli the rail and/or under switch rod at one or more switch rod locations to supplement the tubular heaters applied to the web of the rail. 6.1.4.5 Leads Leads between heater and junction boxes shall be so located as to minimize possible damage. Where necessary, mechanical protection shall be pro\ided. 152 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association i I o Fig. 1 Manual Recommendations 153 6.1.4.6 Junction Boxes The junction boxes shall be located as close as possible to the ends of the heaters, preferably outside of ties, where flexible leads from heaters and supply leads shall be joined. Junction boxes shall be properly supported, with top of Ixjx approximately at the level of the top of the tie. 6.1.4.7 Circuit Protection Each group of heaters serving a track switch shall be provided with suitable fault protection. The protective units so provided shall be housed in a weather- proof box located as close as possible to the center of load. 6.1.5 SPECIFICATION FOR TUBULAR HAIRPIN TYPE ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.5.1 Purpose This specification outlines standards as a basis for tlie manufacture and accept- ance of tubular hairpin type electric heaters for application to the rails of railroad track switches. The heaters embody a resistance element to be supplied with electric energy. Their purpose is to furnish sufficient heat to prevent snow and ice from interfering with normal nioNcnient of switch points. 6.1.5.2 Basis of Purchase Orders for electric heaters under this specification shall include the following information: ( 1 ) Heaters shall conform to Specification for Tubular Hairpin Type Electric Heaters for Track Switches. (2) Active length of heaters. (3) Purchaser shall specify size of rail and note special obstructions. (4) Wattage rating of heaters. (5) Voltage rating of heaters. (6) Length of flexible leads if required. (7) State if railroad will furnish clamps, etc. (8) State whether or not tests are required. 6.1.5.3 Length and Separation (a) Recommended standard rail lengdis of heaters are: 7 ft. 9 in. overall, 7 ft. active and 15 ft. 6 in. overall, 14 ft. active, plus or minus manufacturing tolerances. (b) Recommended number of heaters per switch point: 16-ft. 6-in. switch — two 7-ft. heaters or one 14-ft. heater. 19-ft. 6-in. switch — two 7-ft. heaters or one 14-ft. heater. 22-ft. switch — three 7-ft. heaters or one 7-ft. and one 14-ft. heater. 26-ft. switch — two 14-ft. heaters or four 7-ft. heaters. 30-ft. switch — two 14-ft. heaters or four 7-ft. heaters. 39-ft. switch — five 7-ft. heaters or one 7-ft. and two 14-ft. heaters. (c) The active length of heaters for movable point frogs shall be made equal to the fidl length of the knuckle rail casting. (d) The railroad shall specify weight of rail and any special obstructions in order to determine separation of loop. 154 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 6.1.5.4 Wattage and Voltage Rating (a) Heaters shall be rated at 200, 300, 400 or 460 watts per rail foot. The selection will depend on the size of rail and weather conditions. Graduated heat can be obtained by use of two or more differently rated heaters, as required. Terminal box (not cover) shall be clearly marked with watts per foot rating. (b) The wattages specified in paragraph (a) are based on voltage rating of 230 or 460 volts for 7-foot heaters and 460 volts for 14-foot heaters. Any deviation from this voltage will affect the resultant wattage. Other voltages will require a special heater and shall be so specified. Rated voltage heaters may be used at higher or lower voltages (tlie higher witliin manufacturer's limits) but at the lower voltage, consideration must be given to loss in wattage. Terminal box (not cover) shall be marked with voltage rating. 6.1.5.5 Outer Casing (a) The outer casing shall be of corrosion-resistant material. The maximum outside dimension of the casing shall not exceed 0.453 inches. (b) In addition to the active length of tlie heater, the casing shall include at one or both ends an inactive portion 4 inches long of the same outer dimensions and material, to be measured from the end of tlie active portion to the terminal box and junction box or splice, where used. (c) At the end opposite the terminal box of tlie 14-foot heater, the outside dimensions of the splice shall not exceed 5 inches long by 2-5/16 inches wide by 1-9/16 inches deep. 6.1.5.6 Terminals The cormecting assembly between the heater and the lead shall be of a separable type to facilitate replacement of lead or heater in the field. 6.1.5.7 Connector Housing Heater shall be terininated in a watertight terminal box of corrosion-resistant material. The outside clearance dimensions shall not exceed 5 inches in length, 2-5/16 inches in height and 1% inches in depth. Watertight glands shall be supplied as part of the housing to accommodate the supply cable. Construction must provide for ready replacement of leads. 6.1.5.8 Flexible Leads (a) Heaters shall be arranged for two-conductor No. 14 AWG or larger cables of not less than 37 strands 0.533 inches or less in outer diameter. (b) Cable insulation shall be of heat resistant compound 4/64 inch thick meeting ASTM Specification D-754. Over this insulation shall be placed an oil resistant sheath 3/64 inch thick meeting ASTM Specification D-752. (c) The length of the flexible leads, if required, shall be as specified by the purchaser. 6.1.5.9 Heater Supports and Bolts (a) The material of the clamp shall be 3/32 inch tliick by lis inches wide and corrosion resistant. The support sliall be made to allow lateral movement of heater resulting from expansion and contraction. The edges in contact with the heater .shall be rounded to prevent cutting the heater casing. The bolt hole in the support shall be Manual Recommendations 155 13/32 inch in diameter and so located that tlie hole drilled in the rail will be in the neutral axis. (b) The attachment bolts shall be ?8-16 NC by Bi inches long and shall be provided with lock washer and one suitable all-metallic self-locking nut. The material of the bolt, lock washer, and nut shall be Everdur 1015 bronze or otlier approved corrosion-resistant material. (e) Supports, bolts, nuts and washers shall be supplied by the manufacturer unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. 6.1.5.10 Tests A The following tests shall be made on each heater: (a) Except as otherwise specified, high potential tests shall be made in accord- ance with latest AIEE standard. (b) Before receiving current the heater must withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute. (c) Heater exposed to free circulation of air at room temperature and having rated voltage impressed on the terminals shall have wattage within plus 10 percent and minus 5 percent of rated wattage. (d) The heater, including tlie tenninals and leads, shall be submerged in water of a maximum temperature of 60 F for one hour at a pressure of at least 50 psi gage. Immediately upon removal from the water, the heater shall withstand a poten- tial of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute, and must have insulation resistance of at least 1000 megohms measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. (e) After the sheath temperature of tlie heater has been raised by tlie passage of current through its element for 10 minutes at rated voltage to equilibrium tem- perature or not more than 1000 F, the heater must witlistand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute and must have insulation resistance of not less than one megohm as measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. B The following tests shall be made on two heaters of each length of a given lot if required by the purchaser: (a) A heater exposed to free circulation of air at 70 or 80 F shall witiistand without damage, 125 percent of rated potential for 30 minutes across the heater. Heater shall tlaen withstand hi-pot test A (e). (b) After cooling, the heater, under the same air condition as (a) shall with- stand, without damage, 133-1/3 percent of rated potential for one minute across the heater. Heater shall then withstand hi-pot test A (e). 6.1.5.11 Drawings The manufacturer shall submit to the railroad for approval, in time to be approved and in the hands of the Inspector before the heaters, etc. are ctfered for inspection or shipment, four copies of all necessary drawings. 156 Bulletin 660 — ^American Railway Eiigineering Association 6.1.5.12 Warranty The manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under tliis warranty being limited to manufacturing, at the point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective witliin one year after shipment to the purchaser. The warranty shall not apply to any apparatus which shall have been repaired or altered in any way by anyone other than the manufacturer tliereof so as to affect, in the manufacturer's judgment, its proper functioning or reliability, or which has been subject to misuse, negligence, or accident. 6.1.5.13 Shipment The shipper shall provide suitable physical protection to the heaters to prevent damage in shipment. 6.1.6 SPECIFICATION FOR INSTALLATION OF TUBULAR HAIRPIN TYPE ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.6.1 Purpose This specification apphes to tlie application of tubular haiipin type electric heaters, specified in Specification for Tubular Hairpin Type Electric Heaters for Track Switches. These installations shall be capable of supplying sufficient heat to keep snow and ice from interfering witli normal movement of switch points. 6.1.6.2 Location of Heaters The heaters shall be located with sides of hairpin as high and as low as possible on the inside web of tire stock rail. (Separation of sides of hairpin to depend on weight of rail. Supports are to be furnished in 3-inch and 3/2-inch O.D. dimensions.) The active part of heater shall extend from approximately two feet ahead of point of switch to vicinity of heel block. When heaters of two different wattage ratings are used, the higher wattage rated heater shall be installed toward the point of switch. 6.1.6.3 Application of Heaters ( a ) Heaters shall be secured to the web of the rail by means of special supports (Figure 1) suited to tlie weight of rail involved, approximately 18 inches apart and spaced to avoid obstructions. Holes for support bolts {% inch) and terminal boxes (7/16 inches) shall be drilled in neutral axis. Bolt heads of support mounting bolts may be ground to provide the necessary 3/ 16- inch clearance between bolt head and reinforcing bar of the switch point. To clear bolts and rivets in reinforcing bar, it will be necessary in some cases to grind switch points and reinforcing bar to allow a minimum clearance of 3/16-inch. The terminal box of tlie hairpin heater on the point end shall be placed approximately 33 inches ahead of the point on the inside web of the stock rail. Cable entrance and attachment bolt holes shall be drilled to size and on centers as shown in Figure 2. The terminal box shall be secured by means of 5/16-inch corrosion resistant cap screws and lock washers. Cable entrance hole shall be 9/16-inch in diameter and beveled to remove sharp edges. (b) All supports shall be arranged to allow longitudinal movement of heater as a result of expansion and contraction. One support shall be located on rail just ahead of the switch point. Hairpin heaters are supplied in approximate active lengths Manual Recommendations 157 y- HEATER ELEMENT FIG. I if^f D FIG. 2 158 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association of 7 feet and 14 feet. Where necessary to use more than one hairpin heater, it is recommended diat the units be placed so that die loop ends of the heaters are end to end, spaced approximately one foot apart and attached as described above. For longer switches necessitating several hairpin heaters, additional units should be arranged in a like manner. (c) After securing the hairpin heater to the rail in the above fashion, remove cover of terminal box, bring the two-conductor power lead through cable entrance, neoprene gland and metal ring, securing bared ends firmly to tlie terminals. Tighten metal ring forcing neoprene gland around cable making waterproof seal. Replace neoprene gasket and cover plate, tighten cap screws securely and apply cotter pin. (d) In the case of movable point frogs, tubular hairpin heaters shall be applied the full length of knuckle rail casting on gauge side of track. 6.1.6.4 Severe Temperature Conditions Where temperatures of zero degrees F. or below are encountered, it may be found necessary to install ballast type heaters (see Ballast Type Heaters) beneath the rail and/or under switch rod at one or more switch rod locations to supplement the hairpin type tubular heaters applied to the web of the rail. 6.1.6.5 Leads Leads between heater and junction boxes shall be so located as to minimize damage. Wliere necessary, mechanical protection shall be provided. 6.1.6.6 Junction Boxes The junction boxes shall be located as close as possible to the ends of the heaters, preferably outside of ties, where flexible leads from heaters and supply leads shall be joined. Junction boxes shall be properly supported, with top of box approxi- mately at the level of the top of tlie tie. 6.1.6.7 Circuit Protection Each group of heaters serving a track switch shall be provided with suitable fault protection. The protective units so provided shall be housed in a weatherproof box located as close as possible to the center of load. 6.1.7 SPECIFICATION FOR PLATE TYPE ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.7.1 Purpose This specification outlines standards as a basis for the manufacture and accept- ance of plate type electric heaters for application to the rails of railroad track switches. Their purpose is to furnish sufficient heat to prevent snow and ice from interfering with normal movement of switch points. 6.1.7.2 Basis of Purchase Orders for electric heaters under this specification shall include the following information: ( 1 ) Heaters shall conform to Specification for Plate Type Electric Heaters for Track Switches. (2) Voltage rating of heaters. (3) State whether tests are required. Manual Recommendations 159 6.1.7.3 Number of Plates Required Required number of plates per switch based upon 300 watts per foot of for half distance, and 200 watts per foot of rail for remainder is: Lengdi of Switch Number of Plates 16 ft.-6 in. 16 19 ft.-6 in. 18 22 ft. 20 26 ft. 24 30 ft. 28 39 ft. 38 6.1.7.4 Wattage and Voltage Rating (a) Plate type heaters shall be rated at 500 watts per unit. Each plate shall be clearly stamped with wattage rating. (b) The wattage specified in paragraph (a) is based on voltage rating of 115 or 230 volts. Any deviation from this voltage will affect the resultant wattage. Other voltages will require a special heater and shall be so specified. Rated voltage heaters may be used at higher or lower voltages (the higher within manufacturer's limits) but at tlie lower voltage consideration must be given to loss in wattage. Heaters shall be clearly stamped with voltage rating. 6.1.7.5 Construction (a) The heater embodies a resistance element to be supplied with electric energy. (b) The outer casing shall be of corrosion-resistant material. The maximum thickness of a raised portion 1/4 inches in diameter at the center of the plate oppo- site the mounting stud shall be no greater than 11/32 inch. The maximum thick- ness of the remainder of the plate shall be no greater than 11/64 inch. (c) The plate shall be 15 inches long and 3 inches wide. (d) The plate shall have a hollow, externally threaded corrosion-resistant stud fastened to its side to serve both as a means of mounting to the rail and as an entrance for the lead wires. One /s-inch corrosion-resistant nut, two silicone washers, and one /s-inch corrosion-resistant steel washer shall be provided for mounting each plate. (e) The plate shall be continuous welded around its outer edges. There shall be no splices inside the plate, except where the lead wires join tlie resistance 6.1.7.6 Terminals The connecting assembly between the lead wires and the power supply wires shall be of a separable type to facilitate installation or replacement of heaters in the field. 6.1.7.7 Connector Housing The terminal housing shall be so constructed that it will provide a seal against tlic entrance of moisture. 6.1.7.8 Flexible Leads (a) The heater shall be provided with two leads, each consisting of not less than 16 strands of No. 30 AWG tinned steel wire. 160 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association (b) Lead wire insulation shall be of silicone asbestos with glass silicone braid and with a total insulation thickness of 0.094 inch. (c) The length of the flexible lead shall be 6 inches outside of the stud. A 6.1.7.9 Tests The following tests shall be made on each heater: (a) Except as otherwise specified, high potential tests shall be made in accordance with the latest AIEE standards. (b) Before receiving current the heater must withstand a potential of 900 volts, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute. (c) Heater exposed to free circulation of air at room temperature and having rated voltage impressed on the terminals shall have wattage within plus 10 percent and minus 5 percent of rated wattage. (d) The heater shall he submerged in water to a line half way up the stud for one hour, at a maximum temperature of 60 F. Immediately upon removal from the water, the heater shall withstand a potential of 900 volts, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute and must have insula- tion resistance of at least one megohm measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. (e) After the sheath temperature of the heater has been raised by the passage of current through its element for 10 minutes at rated voltage to equilibrium temperature of not more than 1000 F, the heater must withstand a potential of 900 volts, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute and must have insulation resistance of not less than one megohm as measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. B The following tests shall be made on two heaters of each lot if required by the purchaser: (a) A heater exposed to free circulation of air at 70 to 80 F shall withstand without damage, 125 percent of rated potential for 10 minutes across the heater. Heater shall then withstand hi-pot test A (e). (b) After cooling, the heater, under the same air condition as (a) shall withstand, without damage, 133% percent of rated potential for one minute across the heater. Heater shall tlien withstand lii-pot test A (e). 6.1.7.10 Drawings The manufacturer shall submit to the railroad for approval, in time to be approved and in the hands of the Inspector before the heaters, etc., are offered for inspection or shipment, four copies of all necessary drawings. 6.1.7.11 Warranty The manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at the point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defec- tive within one year after sliipment to the purchaser. The warranty shall not apply to any apparatus which shall have been repaired or altered in any way by anyone Manual Recommendations 161 otlier than the manufacturer tliereof so as to affect, in the manufacturer's judgment, its proper functioning or reliability, or which has been subject to misuse, negligence or accident. 6.1.7.12 Shipment The shipper shall provide suitable physical protection to the heaters to pre- vent damage in shipment. 6.1.7.13 Note Due to the construction of these electric heaters, the tests are not as severe as those on other types of electric heaters, and, therefore, plate type heaters are not recommended for heavy main track service. 6.1.8 SPECIFICATION FOR INSTALLATION OF PLATE TYPE ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.8.1 Purpose This specification applies to the application of plate electric heaters specified in Specification for Plate Type Electric Heaters for Track Switches. These installa- tions shall be capable of supplying sufficient heat to keep snow and ice from inter- fering with nonnal movement of switch points. 6.1.8.2 Location of Heaters (a) The heater plates shall be distributed along the gage side of the running rail. The spacing between plates shall be based on the watts per foot of svdtch point required. Centerline of first plate shall be placed 12 inches ahead of the switch point. (b) Heaters shall be spaced, and holes for mounting heater drilled in rails so that heater studs or interconnecting heater cables will not interfere with rail braces. 6.1.8.3 Application of Heaters (a) One 11/16-inch diameter hole shall be drilled at the neutral axis for mounting tlie heater plate. Figure 1 illustrates the manner in which this is done. The power supply cable feeding the heaters should be run through the plate con- nector housings along the web of the rail and be looped around each rail brace so that it will not interfere with working around the switch. (b) The plate heater shall be secured to the rail by means of the mounting stud which is an integral part of each plate. (c) The connector housing shall be attached to the stud by means of corro- sion-resistant 58-inch nut, silicone washers, and corrosion-resistant steel washer furnished. See Figure 1. (d) The plate type heaters shall be electrically connected with neoprenc jacketed, two-conductor No. 10 AWG, flexible cable (see Figure 2). The outside diameter of the cable shall be from 11/16 inch to % inch so as to provide a water- tight seal through the fitting provided for this purpose in the wall of the connector housing. (e) The cables between plate connector housings shall be fastened to tlie ties where necessary so as to minimize damage. (f) The plates shall be connected in parallel and spaced so as to provide tlie wattage specified from point to heel of switch. 162 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association PLATE TYPE HEATER TERMINAL BOX NEOPRENE GROMMET i;> STEEL WASHER SILICONE Fig. 1 rJEOPRENE JACKETED / 2-C HQ 10 FLEXIBLE TO \ O.D. Manual Reconmiendations 163 6.1.8.4 Severe Temperature Conditions Where temperatures of zero degrees F or below are encountered, it may be found necessary to install ballast type heaters (see Specification for Electric Heat- ers for Ballast Under Track Switches) beneath the rail and/or under switch rod at one or more switch rod locations to supplement the plate heaters applied to the web of the rail. 6.1.8.5 Cable Cable between heater and junction boxes shall be so located as to minimize damage. Where necessary, mechanical protection shall be provided. 6.1.8.6 Junction Boxes The junction boxes shall be located at the most convenient place, preferably outside of ties, where cable from heater and supply shall be joined. Junction boxes shall be properly supported with top of box approximately at the level of the top of the tie. 6.1.8.7 Circuit Protection Each group of heaters serving a track switch shall be provided with suitable fault protection. The protective units so provided shall be housed in a weatherproof box located as close as possible to the center of load. 6.1.9 SPECIFICATION FOR ELECTRIC HEATERS FOR BALLAST UNDER TRACK SWITCHES 6.1.9.1 Purpose This specification outlines standards as a basis for the manufacture and acceptance of tubular heaters for application to the ballast under railroad track switches. The heaters embody a resistance element to be supplied with electric energy. Their purpose is to furnish supplementary heat under unusually severe weather conditions to prevent snow and ice from interfering with normal move- ment of switch points. 6.1.9.2 Basis of Purchase Orders for electric heaters under this specification shall include the following information: ( 1 ) Heaters shall conform to Specification for Electric Heaters for Ballast Under Track Switches. (2) Wattage rating of heaters. (3) Voltage rating of heaters. (4) Type of terminal. (5) Length of flexible leads. (6) State whether tests are required. 6.1.9.3 Wattage and Voltage Rating (a) Heaters shall be rated at 1000 watts, or as otherwise specified. (b) Heaters shall be rated for operation on 230 or 460 volts or as otherwise specified. 164 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 6.1.9.4 Construction The heater shall consist of a heater element of tubular type formed into a hair-pin with weather-tight terminal cormectors. This heat element shall be clamped between two corrosion-resistant shoes or plates which will serve as heat-conducting and radiating surfaces. 6.1.9.5 Terminals The connecting assembly between the heater and the lead shall be of a separable t>'pe to facilitate replacement of leads in the field. A nonseparable type terminal will be provided if so ordered. 6.1.9.6 Connector Housing The terminal housing on each end of the heater connecting the outer casing and the flexible lead shall be of corrosion-resistant material. The terminal housing shall be so constructed that the connection between the heater tube and the cable shall pro\ide a positive seal against the entrance of moisture. 6.1.9.7 Flexible Leads (a) The heater shall be provided at each end with a flexible lead of No. 6 AWG or larger copper cable of not less than 37 strands. (b) Cable insulation shall be of heat resistant compound 4/64 inch thick meeting ASTM Specification D-754. Over this insulation shall be placed an oil resistant sheath 3/64 inch thick meeting ASTM Specification D-752. (c) The length of the flexible lead shall be 30 inches, or as otherwise speci- fied by the purchaser. 6.1.9.8 Tests A The following tests shall be made on each heater: (a) Except as otherwise specified, high potential tests shall be in accordance with the latest AIEE standards. (b) Before receiving current the heater must withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute. (c) Heater exposed to free circulation of air at room temperature and having rated voltage impressed on the terminals shall have wattage within plus 10 percent and minus 5 percent of rated wattage. (d) The heater, including the terminals and leads, shall be submerged in water of a maximum temperatvue of 60 F for one hour at a pressure of at least .50 psi gage. Immediately upon removal from the water, the heater shall withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheatli for one minute, and must have insulation resistance of at least 1000 megohms measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. (e) After the sheath temperature of the heater has been raised by tlie passage of current through its element for 10 minutes at rated voltage to equilibrium temperature or not more than 1000 F, the heater must withstand a potential of twice rated voltage plus 1000, 60 cycles, applied between conductor and sheath for one minute and must have insulation resistance of not less than one megohm as measured with a 1000-volt ohmmeter. Manual Recommendations 165 B The following tests shall be made on two heaters of each lot if required by the purchaser : (a) A heater exposed to free circulation of air at 70 to 80 F shall withstand without damage, 125 percent of rated potential for 30 minutes across the heater. Heater shaU then withstand hi-pot test A (e). (b) After cooling, the heater, under the same air condition as (a) shall with- stand, without damage, 133% percent of rated potential for one minute across the heater. Heater shall then withstand hi-pot test A (e). 6.1.9.9 Drawings The manufacturer shall submit to die railroad for approval, in time to be approved and in the hands of the Inspector before the heaters, etc., are offered for inspection or shipment, four copies of all necessary drawings. 6.1.9.10 Warranty The manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at the point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within one year after shipment to the purchaser. The warranty shall not apply to any apparatus which shall have been repaired or altered in any way by anyone other than the manufacturer thereof so as to affect, in the manu- facturer's judgment, its proper functioning or reliability or which has been subject to misuse, negligence or accident. 6.1.9.11 Shipment The shipper shall provide suitable physical protection to the heaters to pre- vent damage in shipment. 6.2 RELATIONS WITH PUBLIC UTILITIES 6.2.1 CROSSINGS OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLY LINES AND FACILITIES OF RAILROADS 6.2.1,1 Foreword After a number of years of cooperative study of the problem of mechanical coordination at crossings of electrical supply lines and facilities of railroads, the AAR-EEl Joint Engineering Committee issued in August 1946 a report presenting principles and practices together with a set of specifications. These specifications were based on the Fifth Edition of the National Electrical Safety Code. In die light of the subsequent cooperative handling of crossing problems by the electric utility companies and the railroads it appears that a detailed set of specifications supple- mentary to the National Electrical Safety Code no longer is necessary and, further, that continuance of AAR-EEI specifications periodically revised to reflect revisions in the National Electrical Safety Code would require wasteful duplication of efforts. Accordingly, tlie practices have been revised to refer to the latest revision of the National Electrical Safety Code as the guide for construction at crossings. The following Principles and Practices for Crossings of Electrical Supply Lines and Facihties of Railroads are reconnnended for use in the handling of mutual 166 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association problems at crossings, in the interest of safety, uniformity, and economy. They have been appro\'ed as reconmiended practice by the Association of American Railroads and the Edison Electric Institute. A typical crossing drawing and instructions for its preparation are shown in the Appendix. 6.2.1.2 Principles and Practices for Crossings of Electrical Supply Lines and Fa- cilities of Railroads 6.2.1.2.1 Introductory The proper solution of any engineering problem involving more than one indi- \idual or group can best be obtained through cooperation and a mutual detennination of the best engineering methods for arriving at the desired result. Both railroad and electrical supply utilities render service demanded by the public. The facilities of each exist in the same territory, and crossings of tliese facilities are unavoidable if service conditions of both utilities are to be met. These crossings should be made with due regard to safety of the public, the protection of the employees and facilities of both utilities, and to the quality of the service of each. The burden of expense which will be necessarily imposed on the service of each, because of the common occupancy of die same territory, should be as light as is consistent with the necessary conditions of safety. The proper establishment of these crossings is, therefore, a mutual duty on the part of these utihties to the public. Cooperative consideration to the coordination of the facilities of each should be given: (a) When new facilities of either character are to be constructed. (b) When existing facilities are to be modified, relocated, or reconstructed. These crossing problems involve mutual duties on the part of each utility to the other and a common duty to the public. Close cooperation is required if the best results, measured in service to the public, are to be secured. These problems may be grouped as follows: 1. Inductive Coordination. These involve inductive relations between electrical circuits of all kinds when they occupy positions of proximity to each otlier. Inductixe coordination problems are considered in the report on "The Induc- tive Coordination of Electrical Supply and Communication Systems" issued October 7, 1936, by the Joint Ceneral Committee of die Association of American Railroads and Edison Electric Institute. 2. Mechanical Coordination. Mechanical coordination problems relate mainly to clearances and strength of construction and arise in connection witli cross- ings, since a physical contact between tiie facilities of the utilities may constitute a hazard or impair service. These problems must be treated only in the light of such physical relations. It is recommended that the following principles and practices be used as a guide in connection with mechanical coordination problems. Nothing in these principles and practices should be construed as superseding state, municipal, or other legal requirements. 6.2.1.2.2 Principles 1. It should be the duty of each utility to expedite, insofar as practicable, all work incident to necessary crossings between die facilities of the two utilities. Manual Recommendations 167 2. Each utility should be tlie judge of tlie quality and requirements of its own service, including the general character and design of its own facilities subject to these principles and practices. 3. Each utility should provide and maintain facilities adequate to meet the service requirements, including such reasonable future modifications in these facili- ties as changing conditions indicate to be necessary and proper. 4. Each utility should cooperate witli the other utility so that, in carrying out the foregoing duties, proper consideration will be given to the mutual problems which may arise and so that the utilities can jointly detennine the best engineering solution in situations where the facilities of both are involved. 5. Joint consideration by both utilities of safety, service, convenience, and economy, and the trend of development of both utilities, should determine: (a) The general character of construction of all crossings. (b) The best engineering solution for the coordinated arrangement and design of facilities at crossings. (c) The administrative methods for establishing, maintaining, altering, or removing crossings. 6. The utilities at interest in a locality should maintain close cooperation and each notify the others of any intent to build new or extend existing facilities which might tend to contribute to the creation or modification of a crossing. 7. When new crossings are contemplated, they should be so located and planned as to minimize interference with existing facilities. 8. When crossings are to be modified, the allocation of costs between the parties at interest should be reasonable and equitable, taking into account all factors involved. 9. Construction and inductive coordination measures employed at crossings should be in accordance with mutually acceptable practices. 10. Contracts, whether general or specific, covering the crossings, sliould define conditions for the establishment, construction, maintenance, operation, modification, relocation, or elimination of the crossing. Provision should be made for re\'iew and revision of all contracts from time to time. 6.2.1.2.3 Practices 1. Agreements Agreements may be arranged to cover specific crossings, all crossings in a given territory, groups of crossings in a given territory, or in any otlier suitable manner satisfactory to the utilities at interest. 2. Notification When a crossing is to be established, the utility initiating the crossing should notify the other utility as early in advance of the time of construction as practicable. Such notice should show the proposed location and cliaracter of tlie crossing. The parties should then cooperate and decide as to the fitness of the proposed location and see that construction is in accordance with the latest re\'ision of the National Electrical Safety Code — Part 2, "Safety Rules for the Installation and Maintenance of Electric Supply and Communication Lines." 3. Procedure When Crossing Is to Be Modified When either utility finds it necessary to change the cliaracter of its facilities at a crossing, it shall so notify the other and both shall cooperate to determine the 168 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association most satisfactory' \\a\- to make the modification. The utility whose facilities are to be modified shall promptly carry out tlie necessary work and the utilities shall cooperate to determine the equitable apportionment of the expense involved in such modification. The expense to be apportioned should be the net expense from which shall be excluded any increased cost on account of the substitution for the existing facilities of other facilities of a greater life or of improved type or of increased capacity. 4. Joint Planning An efFecti\e wa>' of handling situations in a given territory is through the full application of the principles of cooperation, including advance notice, advance plan- ning, and the interchange of infonnation. 5. Contracts In either general or specific contracts, any provisions treating of the character of the facilities involved should be so worded as not to restrict changes in tlie character of tlie facihties of either utility, except that it should be recognized tliat such changes may involve the modification, relocation, or the elimination of the crossing. Legal questions, including the sufficiency of right-of-way grants held by the respective utilities and the protection of title or property of both utilities, in tlie case of mortgages, sales, mergers, or consolidations entered into by either, should be given due consideration in the preparation of contracts. 6. Liability In any tenns of a crossing contract dealing with liability for personal or property damage, care should be taken that such tenns are reasonable and just. APPENDIX Typical Crossing Drawing Instructions for Filling Out Typical Crossing Drawing Exhibit "A," covering power line crossings, was primarily designed to cover proposed crossings but can be used for existing crossings. It should show all the information necessary for the complete checking of the crossing from the standpoint of construction as well as clearances. Heading A — Fill in the correct corporate name of the company or individual owning the crossing. B — Show the correct location of the proposed or existing crossing in terms of the exact distance in feet from the nearest mile post. C — Either plus or minus should be marked out. D — The nearest mile post should be shown. E — WTiether located at a public road or street, or not; either "within" or "not within" should be marked out. F — Show the name of the division. G — Show the name of the subdivision. H — Show the name of the county in which located. I — Show the State in wliich tlie crossing is or is to be installed so that the crossing may be definitely located. Manual Recommendations 169 170 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Elevation and Plan Views The elevation and plan views should be considered relatively, and the correct mile post shown under j so that pole B in the plan view will be in the same relative location as in the elevation view. The dimensions J, K, K', J', N, O, P, N', O', N", and P' are for tlie purpose of checking tlie constiTiction of the crossing. J, K, K', and J' should be measured parallel with the supply line. J and J' represent tlie length of tlie two spans adjacent to the crossing span, while the sum of K and K' represents the length of the crossing span. Measurements K and K' should be made from the center line of the track or tracks. N and N' represent the lead of tlie head guys on poles B and C, respectively, while O, P, O', and P' represent the lead of the side guys. N" represents the lead of the head guys on poles A and D where it is not possible to install head guys on poles B and C. M or M' represents the angle the crossing span makes with the track. (To aid in filling out the data sheet, the railway company's signal, communication, or catenary line has been indicated on both sides of the ti-ack.) After the direction of the elevation view has been determined, one of the lines should be crossed out unless in the section in question tlie railway company has a separate pole line for its signal, communication, or catenary wires. This line should be labeled what it is (i.e., signal, communication, and/or catenary). Measurements Q and R or Q' and R' represent the distance from the center line of the supply wires to tlie two adjacent poles in the railway company's signal, com- munication, or catenary lines. The remaining measurements represented by L, L', U, T, S, S', T', and U' in the plan view are for the purpose of checking clearances and should all be measured at right angles to tlie track. L and L' are the distances from poles B and C, respectively, to the nearest rail. S or S', as tlie case may be, is tlie distance from tlie center line of the track or tracks to the center line of the railway company's line. T or T' is the distance from the center line of the railway company's hne to its right-of-way line. (On the side opposite to tlie line the distance from center line of tiack to the right-of-way line should be indicated under S or S' and T or T' crossed out.) U and U' represent the distance from the right-of-way line to the crossing poles B and C, respectively. Since the distances K and K' are measured parallel witli the supply line and the distances U, T, S, and U', T', S' are measured at right angles to the track, the sum of U, T, and S is a function of the angle, M times the distance K, and the sum of U', T', S', the distance K'. Under V should be filled in the number of supply wires on the top crossarm: W represents the size of the wires, X the kind of material, such as hard-diawn cop- per, etc., Y die voltage, and Z the tension in the wires with a temperature of F, and with a loading of M inch of ice and a 4-lb wind (standard heavy loading). If the supply line is not a straight line from pole A to pole D, the approximate relative position should be plotted on the plan view to indicate which poles are corner poles and the approximate pull on the pole. In the elevation view the view of the railway company's line corresponding to the one in the plan view should be crossed out. The horizontal distance from tiie Manual Recommendations 171 crossing pole to the nearest wire in the line g or g' and the vertical clearance of the supply wires over or under the wires h or h' should be indicated, as well as the clearance of the supply wires above top of rail at 60 F. The height above ground, a, plus the depth of setting, b, for each of the four poles, shows the total length of these poles; c represents the height of the guy attachments, where attached to tlie pole, above ground; d is tlie circumference of the pole in inches at the top and e the circumference 6 feet from butt; f represents the nonnal sag at 60 F of tlie supply wires in the tliree spans respectively; i represents clearance of lowest conductor above top of rail. Crossarms and Pin Spacing n and n' show the spacing of the pole pin wires from the center of the pole and o the spacing between wires other than the pole pair; k is the length and 1 the widtli of the crossarms used; m represents the spacing between the attachment of the two braces to the crossarm. Vertical Profile p represents the distance between the conductors on pole. q represents the type and make of tlie vertical strain clamp. r represents the type and make of the strain insulator. s represents the type and make of the neutral bracket or bracket clevis. Data 1 represents the type pin insulators used. 2 represents the type strain insulators used. 3 represents the type pins used. 4 represents the type crossanns: their size and material. 5 represents the type strain hardware. 6 represents the type neutral bracket or bracket clevis. 7 and 8 represent tlie poles: their timber, class, and depth set. 9 and 10 represent the guys: their kind, size, and strength. 11 represents the anchors: their kind, size, and depth set. 12 and 13 represent the guy clamps: their kind, size, and the number used. 6.2.2 SCHEDULE OF FEES AND RENTALS FOR LONGITUDINAL OCCU- PATION OF RAILROAD RIGHT-OF-WAY BY AERIAL TRANSMISSION LINES OF 7500 VOLTS AND OVER The purpose of these recommendations is to give the railroads a uniform basis for negotiating with the public utilities a rental fair to both parties that is somewhat less than tlie cost would be to tlie utilities if tliey located their lines off of railroad right-of-way. a. In general, it is recommended that the present policy and schedule of fees dated February 20, 1958 of the Eastern Railroad Association be followed, except as modified below, in the area covered by the Eastern Railroad Association. The schedule of fees dated February 20, 1958 may be obtained from the Eastern Railroad Association, 2 Penn Plaza, Suite 500, New York, NY 10001. b. For all occupations of 7500 volts or less, and in situations where the formulae under (c) below yield a rental lower than the schedule in paragraph (a), the "Schedule of Fees and Rentals for Longitudinal Occupation of Railroad Company Property" of the Eastern Railroad Association is reconnnended. Dul. 6(S0 172 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association c. For all occupations over 7500 volts, the following formulae are recommended as a basis of negotiation with pubhc utilities. Formula 1 For Rental Where Line(s) Is On UtiUty Structures. Annual Right-of-Way Rental Per Mile = (NXVXRXU)+ (PatS rates). Where N =^ Number of acres subtended by power circuit per mile = -^^ (A + 2C) ^ 43560 ^ ^ A = Distance between outside conductors in feet. C =: NESC (Fifth Edition) building clearance in feet. (Where tliere are two or more circuits of different or same voltages on tlie same structures, use A and C for circuit requiring greatest widtli). V = Value of right-of-way land in dollars per acre based upon value of land adjacent to right-of-way inflated for increased value of cleared right-of-way. R = Rental rate of 6 percent in States with no land taxes and 8 percent in States with land taxes. U = Utihty percent usage of right-ofway. (For one circuit per structure =: 50% (0.5), two circuits = 66-2/3% (0.67), three circuits = 75% (0.75), etc. S = Scheduled power rate per mile of circuit. First 50 kw , Next 2o0 lew \rj,^ ^^ determined by joint negotiation Next 9700 kw \ Balance l, P = Power capacity of hne in kilowatts. For single phase = 0.48 X kilovolts X current (ampere capacity per conductor). (0.48 = 0.8 (power factor) X 0-6 (utilization or load factor). For three phase = 0.83 X kilovolts X current (ampere capacity per conductor). (0.83 = 1.73 X 0.8 X 0.6). FORMLTLA 2 For Rental Wliere Line(s) Is On Railroad Stnictiu-es. The aimual rental shall be the rental as determined by Formula 1 for use of right-of-way plus rental as determined below for use of structures. The first part of rental should be figured as above except that U would equal p — where P = number of utility circuits on structures involved and E := number of railroad high- voltage circuits plus number of utility circuits (P) plus, in electrified area, the catenary system counted as one, or in non-electrified territoiy the tracks or land counted as one. Annual Structure Rental Per Mile = FXBXDXG Where F = fixed charges =: 12 percent (0.12) as follows: Manual Recommendations 173 Maintenance 1.5% Depreciation 1.0% Taxes and Insurance 2.5% Interest on Yi Money at 5% 2.5% Retimi on Y2 Money at 8% 4.0% Administration 0,5% B = Present day replacement value of structures per mile = L X M X T. Where L = Original installed ledger value per mile. M = ICC multiplier (latest ICC index for 31 Account less ICC index on date of installation). T = Multiplier to increase (L X M) figure to calculated present day replacement value. D = Depreciated value of structure based on 100-year bfe in percent. (If 32 years old D = 0.68). G c= Percent of entire structure used by utility based upon moments. (Sum of moments of utility wires divided by sum of moments of all wires on structure). Explanatory Notes on Longitudinal Occupation Rental Formulae. Where the utility occupies railroad structures, the rental Formula 2 appears to be as nearly a scientific metliod of determining that portion of the rental as can be devised. It is based primarily on the present-day value of the structures and the percentage use of those structures by tlie utiBty. The other, Formula 1, in cases where the utility provides its own structures, requires some explanation. The first half of the fonnula is based only upon a fair return on the value of the right-of-way land as determined by the value of adjacent property off the right- of-way. However, this portion of the formula does not, in many cases, provide a fair rental or return to tlie railroad for the use of its right-of-way. Hence the second part is required for the following reasons: 1 — Where land is cheap the first half of formula does not provide a fair rental to the raihoad for the use of its property. 2 — The assumption that the land occupied is equally shared by the railroad and the utility is usually not in accordance with the facts. Actually the railroad gets little or no use of this land. 3 — ^The presence of the transmission line may limit the use the railroad can actually get from the land occupied and increases railroad costs. The following items are not reflected in the first half of the rental fonnula: a — The space occupied cannot be used for longitudinal tracks without requir- ing the utility to relocate its lines. b — Railroad cannot build within code limits of the line. c — ^The use of high cranes and other ofF-track machinery may be restricted. d — Presence of line slows restoration of facilities in the case of some wrecks, e — Railroad cannot sell or lease surrounding land broken up by space occupied, f — In electiified territory, lines if close enough or on railroad structures would slow railroad maintenance of its structures and lines, g — In electrified and other territory lines if close enough or on railroad structurts increase hazard to electrification and other railroad circuits if and when utility wires fall. 174 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 4 — ^The higher the capacity of the line the more valuable the space is to tlie utility and the more it can afford to pay for rental. All of the above factors, in many cases, may justify the use of the entire fonnula in detennining rentals. However, it is possible to price oneself out of an occupation, that is, cause the utility to locate off railroad right-of-way, if the rental is too high, particularly in sparsely settled areas where alternate right-of-way is relatively easy to get. The fonnula is flexible enough so that each railroad in negotiating with a utilit>', can study each situation and alter or eliminate any factor in the formula to arrive at a figure that is equitable to botli the railroad and the utility. Conditions vary all over the country. At present the railroads have no uniform tool to use in starting their study. These formulae gi\'e tlrem such a guide. In many locations the utilit\' will be glad to pay the maximum amount determined by the full formula. In other locations a considerable adjustment downward will have to be made. Manual Recommendations 175 Part 7 Contact Rails Rail Bonding 7.1 BONDING 7.1.1 METHOD OF DETERMINING RAIL BOND SIZES— ELECTRIC TRACTION When discussing the bonding of rimning rails for an electrified system certain contributing factors must be assumed to have already been studied and decided upon. These factors would involve a study of the overall system from an economic and performance standpoint and would include: 1. Spacing and location of substations. 2. Maximum allowable voltage drop for operation of motors. a. Desired drop in overload feeders involving study of cost of copper. b. Desired drop in return system involving study of electrolysis and stray currents. 3. Weight of rail. 4. Single rail propulsion system or double rail propulsion system with im- pedance bonds. 5. Multple track cross bonded or single track operation. The size and type of rail bonds would now be a matter of keeping allowable voltage drop in the return system at its proper limit, using bonds which are heavy and strong enough to carry the full load current and withstand nonnal vibration fatigue and mechanical damage. The voltage drop in the system would equal the voltage at the substation minus the voltage at the load. The maximum allowable voltage drop would occur at a point maximum distance from the substation while maximum current was being drawn. Or Vmd = VoR + Vrsd := Imax Zof + Imax Zrs where Vmd = Maximum voltage drop VoFD = Voltage drop in overhead and feeders at maximum current Vrsd = Voltage drop in return system Imax = Maximum current Zof = Impedance of overhead and feeders Zrs = Impedance of return system Also Ziis = Zt +Zb Wliere Zt = Impedance of track Zb = Impedance of bonds Note: This assumes that there is no auxiliary return in parallel with the track. Auxiliary returns are rarely used and should be unnecessary with proper design. For example, assimie a system to l)e bonded as follows ( See Fig. 1 ) : Maximum distance between substations 15 miles. Three thousand-volt d-c system. Maximum allowance voltage drop 500 volts. Maximum starting load current 1500 amperes. One hundred and thirty-pound rail. Double rail propulsion with impedance bonds. Double track operation cross bonded at every other impedance 176 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association <3- iOOO V. -^ ■^3- -EB- l ID — r m =■ -«3- -m- -^ -^ T-ffi- -BB- ■ 03 « -EB- -BB- r^n 7./ MiLH M»)llMWt VOLTM^I 2>»e0 AlLOivMSlt -tot VtLTt Mjhihum CunmtMT iSe» Amuhh /IttuMi'j^ Btn/tiete C»n»iTitN$, Cunttur fin Utt-i. It if 90/4 On )Jt Am^j J)ltiii»»H V0Lr»«t Xlmof In Rtrunn C-fCuir U$im g H/tno 0' V4 '* Jto^ 0* Itt V»t.rs \/ot.T»^i £i>af Ptn Mm /v Txt RiTuKN C'tcuiT I4 its/i.s On /t- 7 Vairt Rtsisrnnci 0' UniL Pluj Bovds h iL-i/jts On e.044S Ohm* KmsT/tNct Of Bonds A»«« U 0.044S - 0.»4 Of 0Ca4S 0nM4 UnN<, US Jeiu-rt Fm MiLt \ filiurntJCt 0' Inen Bons> Is 0t»4S J'SS Oh SSS MisAtm^a Fig. 1 bond location. Maximum unbalance in rails 10% for proper operation of signal system. Signals to operate at 60-cycle a-c. After a study of local terrain and cost of copper, ratio of voltage drop desirable in return circuit to overhead feeder circuit approxi- mately 1 to 4. All calculations made are assuming no help from paralleling splice bars. This will in all cases give results which will over bond because the splice bars are always in place and giving help in actual operation, allowing a large margin of safety. Therefore Vmd = 500V Imax = 1500A Since it is a d-c system the only impedance would be the d-c resistance of tlie comijonent parts. Zrs := Rrs At ^^ Kt Zb = Ru At the 1 to 4 ratio, voltage drop in overhead and feeders = VoKi. = 500 >U^ ^ 375V = Imax Rop 4 Vrsd = 500 - 375 =: 125V = Imax Rrs Vr,.si> 125 Rrs ^ 0.0834 Ohms Imax ~ 1500 With four rails in parallel, resistance per rail =: 0.834 X 4 = 0.3336 Ohms. Since maximum voltage drop must occur at a point farthest from tlie substation. 0.3336 Ohms represents the rail + bond resistance in 7.5 miles. Manual Recommendations 177 From a rail resistance chart 100 lb rail = 0.0399 Ohms per mile. RRa.i = 0.0399 X 7.5 = 0.2998 Ohms Rsonds. = RrqII = 0.3336 — 0.2998 — 0.0338 Ohms In 7.5 miles tliese are 7.5 X 135 = 1015 bonds (Note) The graph (Fig. 2) shows the effect upon track circuit resistance, using various types and lengths of signal bonds, when the parallel resistance of the splice bar is taken into effect. It will be seen that the various curves (A', B', C and D' ) are asymptotic to the straight line values ( A, B, C and D ) figures neglecting spice bar resistance. The actual resistance, as represented by the curves, will ap- proach the values of tlie bond plus rail resistance but will be equal to it only if the resistance of tlie splice bar padi is infinity. This condition is never reached in normal practice thus giving track circuit resistance of a lower value tlian that arrived at by ignoring the splice bar path. The effect of splice bar resistance on power bonds is not as great due to the lower installed resistance of tliese bonds, but the same principle holds. Resistance per bond ;=: -~r^ = 0.000,0335 1015 = 33.5 microhms per bond From a rail bond resistance chart it is found that a 4/0 x 7" U shaped copper bond has a resistance of 40 microhms and would be close enough to be acceptable. If a longer bond spanning the splice bar is desirable, two 400,000 CM bonds, 36" long, could be used giving the same installed resistance. Since bare exposed con- ductors will carry one ampere per 500 CM witliout undue heating, the 4/0 bond would easily carry tlie rail current. At a 1 to 4 ratio the voltage drop in tlie overhead feeder ciicuit would be 500 minus 125 or 375 volts. Resistance would be 375 divided by 1500 or 0.25 ohms. Since 7/2 miles would be 39,500 feet, die resistance per 1000 feet of copper conductor would be 0.25 divided by 39.5 or 0.00634 ohms. This would mean an equivalent copper area in the conductor of approximately 1,750,000 CM to give the desired resistance. The economics of using a 1 to 4 or higher ratio is now easily seen when it is realized that 39,600 feet of 1,750,000 CM copper conductor would equal 215,000 pounds of copper, using a figure of 5405 pounds per 1000 feet. At approximately 38 cents per pound, tliis cost would be $81,500 for the copper alone at the producing mill. The equivalent copper area of the return circuit is approximately 5,300,000 CM. 178 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association —" — "~ A— 1— 34-inch DS-1 Bond per Joint B — .1— 34-inch DS-5 Bond per Joint C—1— 34-inch S-9 Bond per Joint D — 1 — o-inch PA-Z Bona per Joint "" A A ^'"^ B -^'^ B "^ ^^-^ B' - ^ .s:'^ C -2^^-- D D--- jy] no lb. Rail ^^ '_l_ Solid Rail — 1 — ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .006 .007 Foir Averoge 0005 Ohms Resistonce of Splice Bors per Joint in Porollel with Bonds The Curves A', B', C. and D' show the effect of splice bar contacts upon the resistance per 1,CX)0 feet of bonded track (2,000 feet of rail) with the four kinds of bonding indicated by A, B, C, and D, Fig. 2 Manual Recommendations 179 7.1.2 SPECIFICATION FOR STUD TERMINAL COPPER RAIL BONDS 7.1.2.1 General The intention of tliis specification is to provide for the manufacture and delivery of rail bonds of the stud terminal type for the bonding of track rails forming the rail return circuits in electrically operated systems. 7.1.2.2 Definition of Terms The conductor is the stranded portion of tire bond connecting the terminals. Single conductor indicates but one conductor between terminals. Duplex conductor signifies two conductors between bonds terminals. The cross-sectional area of each conductor may be varied to suit the space pro- vided above and below the joint bolts. Therefore, the conductors of a duplex bond may be of equal or unequal area. The nominal size of a duplex bond is the com- bined cross-sectional area of the two conductors. Compressed temiinal bonds have solid studs for compression into die holes in tlie rail. Pin terminal bonds have tubular studs for expansion into holes in the rail with drift pins. The stud of the bond terminal is the cylindrical portion which goes into the hole in the rail. The taper punch is a hardened steel drift tapered at both ends. This tool is driven completely through the hole in the pin terminal and takes care of the major portion of the expansion. The drift pin is a short pin tapered at one end only, which makes the final expansion and is left permanently in place after being driven into tlie terminal. 7.1.2.3. Manufacture General The terminals and conductors shall be made to conform in quality and purity to the requirements of the ASTM specifications for either electrolytic copper, designa- tion B-5, or lake copper, designation B-4. A copper sleeve approximately 0.031 in. thick shall be inserted between the terminal proper and tlie conductor where it enters die terminal. The strands at tlie point of egress from the terminals shall not be injured in manufacture. The terminals shall be welded to the conductors by the best commercial practice such as drop forging. Terminal Studs All temiinal studs shall be milled to nominal diameter. The copper shall be thoroughly annealed, flow freely when compressed or expanded and shall show no indications of checks, cracks or other defects. Conductor Each conductor shall be composed of the number of strands specified in Table 1 for die length of bond required. The area shall not be less than tlie nominal size measured by adding together the areas of all strands of the bond, taken at right angles to their axes. 7.1.2.4 Physical Properties and Tests The completed bonds shall be annealed after manufacture by the manufac- turer's best practice. The strands, at the point where diey leave the temiinal, shall 180 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Table 1 — Specification for Stud Terminal Rail Bonds Size of Bond Stud Ter- minal Diam- eter, Inches Terminal Stud Length, inches Conductor Construction Pin Com- pressed Bond Length 20 In. and Under Bond Length Over 20 In. Maxi- mum Length of Lay. Inches Size of Individual Wire, Inches* Number of Strands Number of Strands M % y% 1 1 1 V4. Ya. % y% y% y% y% 61 61 91 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 61 61 61 61 61 61 61 91 91 91 2.82 3.17 3.66 4.00 4.34 4.76 5.15 5.50 5.84 6.15 61 91 127 0.0418 0.0469 0.0527 0.0592 0.0644 0.0705 0.0761 2-0 3-0 0.432 '6'667" 0.707 0.745 4-0 0.041 250,000 cjn 300,000 cm 350.000 cjn 400,000 cm 450,000 cm 500,000 cm 0.0446 0.0489 0.0528 0.0564 0.0598 0.0631 Duplex Conductor 400,000 cm. , 450.000 cm. 500,000 cm. 1 Vi. y% Note Note Note 1 % % Note Note Note 1 H % Note Note Note Each conductor in a duplex bond shall conform with stranding for nearest size single conductor in the above table. ' Allowable variation plus 0.002. Dimensions of Drift Pins and Taper Punches Taper Punches Greatest Diameter Greatest Terminals of Standard Diameter Diameter in Inches Taper of Oversize Hole Drift Pins Punches Taper Punches Outside Through Diameter in Inches in Inches in Inches Stud Terminal Standard Oversize H 1^ M Ms 'Hi % K ''/k M^ ¥2 ''^ ^5/^ 1 % *Hi K Vs '^^ Manual Recommendations 181 be soft enough to permit of being bent to an angle of 90 degrees widi the axis of the bond and back to their normal position without breaking. The ohmic resistance measured between points on the two teirninals of an extended bond shall not exceed the resistance of a lengdi of the conductor equal to the distance between the two points. 7.1.2.5 Standard Dimensions Terrniiuil Studs The diameter of terminal studs shall not vary more tlian mils over or 5 mils under the nominal diameter in Table 1. Pin Terminal Holes The diameter of tlie holes in the pin temiinal shall not vary more than 5 mils plus or minus from tlie nominal diameter in Table 1. Drift Pins and Taper Punches The diameter of drift pins and taper punches shall not vary more than two mils plus or minus from die nominal diameter in Table 1. General Bonds shall be of the fomi, makeup and length specified on customer's drawing. 7.1.2.6 Packing All bonds shall be packed securely so as to insure arrival at destination without distortion of fonn specified on customer's drawing, or injury to the bonds in transit. 7.1.2.7 Inspection and Rejection The purchaser may inspect the material at all stages of manufacture and proper facilities shall be provided for making tests at the manufacturer's plant. If the material has not been accepted at point of production and if it does not meet with the requirements of this specification, upon receipt at destination, it may be rejected. 7.1.2.8 Guarantee The contractor guarantees the material to be in accordance with the require- ments of this specification and agrees, upon written notice to supply promptly and without charge, to the satisfaction of the railroad company, all necessary material to make good all defects in design, material or workmanship developing in die ma- terial supphed under this specification under ordinary use within 12 months after being placed in the service of tlie railroad. 7.1.3 SPECIFICATION FOR WELDED TYPE RAIL HEAD U-BONDS AND EXTENDED BONDS 7.1.3.1 Purpose The purpose of tiiis specification is to provide welded type stranded rail head bonds and track connectors in No. 4/0 AWG and 250,000 cir mil sizes for the bonding of track rails forming the rail return circuits in electrically operated systems. 7.1.3.2 Drawings Figs. 1, 2 and 3 form an essential part of diis specification. 182 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Firr. 1. Fig. 2 7.1.3.3 Tender The tender shall be for material meeting the requirements of tliis specification. If the contractor wishes to vary from tlie specification, a tender may be submitted covering the material he desires to furnish. The tender shall be accompanied by full information showing wh(>rein tlie requirements of this specification are not met. 7.1.3.4 Alternates The provisions contained in the alternate requisites section of these specifica- tions form a part hereof only when substituted for the provisions contained in this specification. 7.1.3.5 Material and Workmansihp Material and workmanship shall be first class in every respect. 7.1.3.6 Design The general construction and dimensions of bonds and connectors shall conform to Figs. 1 or 2. Manual Recommendations 183 7.1.3.7 Conductors (a) The flexible stranded copper conductors shall be made of concentric one-direction lay construction. (b) The capacity and number of wires shall be as provided for in Table 1 for a given type of bond. (c) Copper wire shall meet tlie requirements of cunent ASTM Specifications, serial designation Bl. Table 1 Single Strand Diameter Size of No. of Each Wire Lay Bond Wires Inches Inches No. 4/0 61 0.0589 4.5 No. 4/0 91 0.0482 4.5 No. 4/0 127 0.0408 3.5 250,000 cm 91 0.0524 5.5 250,000 cm 127 0.0444 4.5 250,000 cm 147 0.0412 5.0 Double Strand No. 4/0 61 0.0416 2.8 Table 2 Electrical Resistance- Type .Gas weld .Steel arc weld .Copper arc weld .Gas weld .Steel arc weld .Copper arc weld -Microhms Straight Extended Length 7 in. 10 in. 14 in. 56 63 56 52 59 52 65 70 65 61 66 61 80 85 80 73 78 73 Size of Bond No. 4/0 . . No. 4/0 ., No. 4/0 . , 250,000 cm. 250,000 cm. 250,000 cm. 7.1.3.8 Terminals (a) Terminals shall be made of copper or steel and attached to the copper conductors in accordance with the Manufacturer's standard practice, approved by the Pm-chaser, A sleeve of soft amiealed copper, approximately 0.03 in. thick, may be inserted between the terminal proper and the conductor where it enters the terminal (See Figs. 1 and 2). (b) Bonds and connectors which may be assembled by a welding process shall be welded with a device capable of producing uniformly good results. (c) When welded, welds shall be so made that the ends of all the wires are united with the terminals to insure a dense and homogeneous metal. (d) Tenninals shall be so designed that, when placed in position on the rail head, a welding scarf (welding surface) shall be formed with the side of the rail head which is in accord with good welding practice for the process or method used. 7.1.3.9 Identification Each tenninal shall be so marked or of such individual design that the manu- facturer of such bond or connector can be readily identified. The mark shall be 184 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association plainly stamped on the terminal and located on the outside adjacent to the strand, where it will not be damaged by \\'elding; thus making the mark readily visible after tlie bond has been applied. 7.1.3.10 Resistance of Installed Bonds (a) When installed by the Manufacturer's recommended and approved welding materials on low carbon rolled steel M in. thick by 2 in. wide, electrical resistance at 60 F shall be of a value not exceeding that indicated in Table 2 for the several lengths of bonds. (b) Tests shall be made by tlie ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin bridge method, with current taps at the edge of the plate outside of the span of the bond on a line tlirough the temiinal centers. Potential contacts shall be made on clean steel at points exactly one inch from the outer ends of terminals and exactly on a line through the center of the terminals. Fig. 3 illustrates the method of testing. Plates shall be effectively insulated. Tests shall be made at a temperature of 68 F. Direct current shall be used at a value not in excess of 100 amp. 7.1.3.11 Purchaser's Order Requirements The Purchaser's order shall specify the following requirements which shall be met: 1. Type, capacity and length of bond. 2. Type, capacity and length of connector. 7.1.3.12 Inspection (a) The Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture. (b) The Purchaser may inspect the completed product to determine that die requirements of this specification have been met. (c) If material has not been accepted at the point of production and if, upon arrival at destination, it does not meet tlie requirements of tlie specification, it may be rejected, and die Contractor, upon request, shall advise the Purchaser what dis- position is to be made of die rejected material. The Contractor shall pay all freight charges. (d) If die Purchaser is to make tlie inspection at the point of production, it shall be so stated. 7.1.3.13 Tests (a) Tests may be made at the point of production, or on samples submitted, and may also be made at destination. The method is illustrated by Fig. 3. (b) The Contractor shall give the Purchaser sufficient notice of the time when the material will be ready for testing. (c) The Contractor shall provide, at die point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under the supervision of the Purchaser. (d) If tests are to be made at the point of production, the Purchaser shall so state and also indicate which of the tests herein specified are to be made and what portion of the material shall be tested. (e) Two samples of welded test specimens for electrical test shall be supplied by the Contractor at the request of the Purchaser, samples to be prepared under die Manual Recommendations 185 R.I L.'""^ '■■- h" 1 I - • ^"^7^ ^ ^.^g:"^ — 1 — —s. jf//jm^ ^ "^^5»^#^l - ?' 'y<-> U^ CABLE SIZE GRAM WEIGHT OF COPPER THERMIT CHARGE FOR. VMELDING 5/& ROD 3/4 ROt) 1/0 go 90 2/0 90 90 4/0 90 90 FIQ. i) COPPEC CAbLE VJELO TO VERTICAL (GROUND ROD. GROUMD ROD S1Z.E <5RA>i WEJQHT OF COPPER THERMIT CHARGE FOR. >NELDINQ 5/& 200 V* ?>0O FIG- 4) e.PL!CE OF VERTICAL QROOKD CA&LE 517E GRAM WEIGHT OF COPPER. THERMIT CHARGE FOR WELDING I/O 45 2/0 45 4/0 90 FIG. 5) SPUCE \NELO OF COPPER. CAbLES. CABLE &»ZE RUN C TAP GRAM WEIGHT OF COPPER THERMIT CHARGE POe \NELDIN<^ I/O 90 2/0 90 4/0 150 FIG. 6) "T" NNELD OF COPPER. CAbLES. 194 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association aria 1 ■ "■ CAftLE SITE GRAM WEJQHT Of COTIR. THERMIT CHAS.QE 7Z7. VJELOIHQ ns/n* 90 MOO l*ix ISO l&00/"t4 ISO Mj/.oai 150 Fiq. T) SPLICE WELO OF FtEXlME OR EXTRA- FLEX IbLE INSULATED COPPER CAbLES. COPPSR. FERR0LE5 U5ED FOR ADPIO MECHANICAL SUPPORT. o o ? /-^ V z 5 CAbLE SITE COPPER LOG- StCTJOH SITE GRAM WEIGHT 0^ COPPER. THER-MH CHARGE FOR. WEUOING ^^5/•^4 1/4 % 1 90 1 IO0/»t4 1/4x1-1/4. 150 I&0o/«t4 3/&«l-)/l 250 a9i/.01T 2/axl-l/2 ^5,o J PIG- a) LUG WtLO OF FLE>itbLE OR. t^TRA - FLEV IbLE INSULATED COPPER. CABLE* TO COPPER bOS LOQ. COPPER FERRULE USED FOR AOOEO MECHAWICAL SUPPORT. Manual Recommendations 193 SLEEVE USED FOR 4/0 CAbLE QNLV FOR MECHANICAL SOPPORT CABLE 512E QOAM VJEIQHT OF COPPER. THERMIT CHAJKiE FOR VJEL0JN4 4/0 IbO 400 MCM SCO ISO MCM 600 (Fl^. 9). SPLICE Vil\J)i Or CATEHABV FEEDER CAftLfeS SLEEVE FOR M6CHAWCAL SUPPOia. CARLE SIZE GRAM VilEIQHl OF COPPER THERMH CHARGE FOR WtLOINQ 4/0 150 400 MCM ISO ISOMCM 400 (FIQ. IO)lOG5 WELDS OF CATENARS SNNITCH TERMINAL LUGS o ' r — \, n - 1 w-^ ! i I r r^^ CAaLE SIZE CxRAMWEJftHT OP COPPER. THERMIT CHARQE FOR WELMHq TWO - 500 MCH 500 (FJq. U ). MULTIPLE CAftLI LIXJ Wa* TO IMPEDANCE BOHO TERMINAL 196 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association (FIG. 12). TYPICAL QROUWDIMG SYSTEM FOR OIL S)P1N<4 OIL TANKS 5FCT10NVS-A" - BORDS APPLIED TO HEAD oiP;3^c?ib'2KjotJ§i9*5f*s<> GRAM \WE)GHT OF COPPER. THER.WT CHAR.C(E FOR VJELDING - 21 FORMED TERMINAL OtTA\L - 1 COPPER FcR.RULE DETAIL - Z GROOND ROD SHE GRAM WEIGHT OF COPPER THERMIT CHARGE FOR VNELDING •A" 50 S/S" 50 3A- 15 \- lOO Manual Recommendations 197 7.1.6.6 Conductors (a) The copper cable conductors considered as standard for groundin shall be concentric lay stranded ASTM classes A, B, C and D. The listing of cables in Figs. 1 through 6 and 9 through 11 are for these stranding classes. Cable ASTM STRANDING Size Class A B C D 1/0 7 19 37 61 2/0 7 19 37 61 4/0 7 19 37 61 400 MCM 19 37 61 91 500 MCM 37 37 61 91 750 MCM 61 61 91 127 (b) Copper cable conductors for power connections are generally flexible or extra-flexible. Cables shall be specified by any or all of the following: 1) Circular mil size and number of strands (i.e., — 500 MCM, 427 strands or 500 MCM, 61 x 7 strands). 2) Number of strands and individual wire size (i.e., — 1100/. 0201 or 1100/No. 24. (c) Rectangular copper bus for lug connections shall be given in actual frac- tional sizes (i.e., — )i x IM). (d) Ground rods are designated by nominal fractional sizes. (e) Copper cable sizes otlier than described in sections 6 (a) and 6 (b) shall be considered "special" and be specified by AWG number of circular mil size, number of strands and ASTM stranding classification, if known. Where possible, a sample of the "special" cable should be submitted to the manufacturer. (f) For conductors other than copper, specify by accepted terminology (i.e., — 5/16, 7-strand galvanized steel). 7.1.6.7 Attaching Metal (a) Attaching metal cartridges shall be identified by numerals or letters on the loose cap of the cartridges. (b) Attaching metal carton shall have cartridge number printed on the carton top. (c) Welding accessories shall be marked with a metal tag showing: 1) Manufacturer's catalog number. 2) Conductor size to be used with welding accessories. 3) Gram weight of copper tliermit charge or cartridge to be used. 4) Copper ferrule catalog number, if required. 7.1.6.9 Resistance of Installed Connections (a) Resistance of 24 inches of conductor containing a connection shall not exceed the resistance of 30 inches of plain conductor. (b) Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin Bridge method or low-resistance ohm-meter. Tests shall be made with direct current at a value not exceeding 100 amperes. All tests values shall be corrected to 68 F for comparative purposes witli tables of cable resistance. 7.1.6.10 Purchaser's Order Requirements (a) Purchaser's order shall specify the following: 198 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 1) Type of connection (using manufacturer's designation if possible). 2) Exact material required (ie., complete welder, replacement mold only, etc.) 3) Conductor size to be used. 4) If a special connection is required, the above information along with any descriptixe information and/or sketch or drawing of the connection should accompany the request. (b) Purchaser's order shall specify tlie following for welding charges: 1 ) Gram weight or catalog number of charges. 2) Number of charges, keeping in mind the manufacturer's standard packaging. (c) Purchaser's order shall specify whether inspection and/or tests will be made at point of production. 7.1.6.11 Inspection (a) Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture to determine tliat the requirements of this specification have been met. 7.1.6.12 Tests (a) Manufacturer shall give the purchaser sufficient notice when material will be ready for testing. (b) Manufacturer shall provide at point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under supervision of the purchaser when called for an order. (d) If electrical test values fail to come widiin the requirements specified in Section 7.1.6.9 (a), manufacturer may be permitted to prepare two additional specimens, under supervision of the purchaser. If one additional test sample fails, the entire lot may be rejected. 7.1.6.13 Packing (a) Welding accessories and attaching metal shall be packed in suitable con- tainers. Attaching metal, molds and accessories may be packed separately at the discretion of the manufacturer. 7.1.6.14 Marking (a) Shipping label shall show the following: 1) Purchaser. 2) Destination as specified by purchaser. 3) Purchaser's order number. 4) Manufacturer's name and address. 7.1.6.15 Warranty (a) Manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at point of pro- duction, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within one year after shipment to the purchaser. This warranty shall not apply to any material which has been subjected to misuse, negligence or accident. Manual Recommendations 199 Part 10 Illumination 10.1 ILLUMINATION 10.1.1 GENERAL Light may be defined as radiant energy which is capable of producing the sensation of sight. Visible energy is an exceedingly small portion of the electro- magnetic spectrum which travels through space in the fonn of electromagnetic waves. All fonns of radiant energy are transmitted at the same rate of speed in vacumn — 186,300 miles per second. However, each fomi differs in wave length and frequency. The human eye may be considered as a receiver tuned to respond only to the energy within the limits of the visible spectrum, a narrow band of wave lengtlis between 3800 Angstroms and 7600 Angstroms. (The Angstrom is a wave lengtli unit equal to one ten-millionth of a millimeter, or approximately four-billiontlis of an inch. ) Light may be produced in many ways generally listed under the headings of incandescence or luminescence. The candle flame and tlie filament lamp are examples of incandescence, while the fluorescent lamp is a familiar example of luminescence. The human eye functions by its ability to transform a light stimulus into an impulse that may be transmitted through the nerve fibres to the brain where it is analyzed and a reaction initiated. The undistorted perception of contrast and color, of shape and depth, of action and direction and tlierefore much of human thought and action depend on die consistent response of the eye to light. It takes time to see. Speed of vision depends upon size, contrast, and illumina- tion of the task. For a given task then, the speed of seeing depends on the brightness of tliat task. Since it is brightness of a surface rather than die illumination it inter- cepts ( footcandles ) that is utilized in seeing, it is important to note that footcandle levels recommended for seeing high reflectance surfaces may be totally inadequate for proper seeing of dark or low reflectance surfaces. Brightness is expressed in terms of footlambers, and the brightness of any nonspecular surface equals the incident illumination (footcandles) times its reflectance factor. Under the same illumination, the brightness of white paper ( reflectance factor 0.8 ) will be four times that of cast iron (reflectance factor 0.2). It should be noted that due to reduction in pupil size of the eye which accompanies advancing age, higher brightnesses are required for equivalent effect in eyes of older observers. At 60 years, the average observer requires twice the object brightness for equivalent seeing as the 20-year-old observer. The handicap of persons with visual defects also decreases as illumination is increased. It is important to remember, particularly in outdoor area lighting, that light is absorbed by moisture, smoke and dust particles, even in an apparently clean atmos- phere. Therefore, when luminaries are located at a distance from the task and/or the task is viewed from a distance, the absorption of light must be taken into con- sideration. For example, if the atmosplieric transmittance were 80 percent per 10-foot distance and the task were viewed at 100 feet, the illumination on the task would have to be increased by a factor of 10 to obtain the same visibility as at 100 percent atmospheric transmittance. 200 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Visual sensations caused by brightness relationships within the field of view may interfere with vision of a seeing task. These interfering brightnesses are called glare, or glare sources, and may be aruioying, uncomfortable or may completely prevent proper seeing. Disability glare may be present whenever a source of bright- ness higher than that of the task is superimposed on the view, or discomfort glare may exist if excessive brightness sources are within the normal viewing angle. This applies to both direct and reflected sources of glare. Glare or glare sources may often become the most important or limiting factor in a lighting installation and should be thoroughly analyzed by the lighting installation planner. Any illumination system should provide sufficient quantity and quality of light on tlie seeing task to minimize the fatigue encountered by visual effort. In industry, adequate lighting must justify itself in dollar and cent tenns to warrant consider- ation. Many studies have been conducted to prove that good hghting increases production by reducing time of seeing in production work, whether this be in the office or shop. Reduction of fatigue and improvement of morale of workers also result in direct gains in output. In relations with the pubic, good illumination plays a most important role. Reduction of accidents is another important factor gained by good hghting. For example, it would be poor economy to neglect the adequate lighting of a stairway where one accident claim might cost many hundreds of times the cost of good lighting. The following sections are concerned witli recommending, as a guide, eco- nomically feasible lighting levels and, in some cases, methods of lighting certain properties peculiar to the railroad industry. The lighting planner, however, should always evaluate the particular seeing task with which he is confronted in terms of basic principles and the most eflFective and economic systems available, realizing that new developments may rapidly outdate any manual. 10.1.2 REFLECTION FACTORS Reflection factors are useful in lighting calculations and should be taken into account when considering visual comfort, utilization of light, and the general atmos- phere of a room or interior. The growing demand in most lighting fields for higher lighting levels has emphasized the importance of selecting interior finishes of relatively high reflectance in order to insure comfortable brightness ratios. In general, brightness ratios be- tween seeing task and backgroimd of approximately three to one or less are to be desired. Reflection factor (reflectance) is die ratio of the light reflected by a surface to the incident light on the surface. A convenient metliod of detennining reflection factor is to use a footcandle meter, holding it against the surface with tlie photo-cell facing perpendicularly away from the surface to measure incident light. Then the meter is reversed with the photo-cell facing the surface and moved about 10 inches away from the surface to measure light reflected from the surface. The second reading is then divided by the first to determine the reflection factor, which is always less than unity. Reflection factors of surfaces vary with their color and with the light source. In all cases light colored walls and ceilings are more efficient than dark colored in conserving light and distributing it unifonnly. An increase in wall reflectance by a factor of 9, say by changing color from a dark green witli reflection factor of 0.08 to a light pastel green with a reflection factor of 0.72 may result in tripling Manual Recommendations 201 illmnination in the room, without changing the Hghts. This will vary depending upon ratio of length and width to height, but in most cases will be effective even in relatively large rooms. Tests have detennined that when a colored and a gray surface of equal reflectance are equally illuminated with light direct from a source, they will be equally bright. However, if a considerable portion of the hght reaching a working surface has undergone several reflections such as from walls, floors, and ceiHngs, as is usually the case in indirect or semi-indirect lighting systems, greater illumi- nation will be obtained if those reflecting surfaces are colored than if they are grays of the same reflectance factor. The greater the number of inter-reflections, the greater is the advantage of the colored siufaces over the gray. For example, after three reflections from a yellow surface, 80 percent of original light may still be present, compared to 10 percent for medium gray. The color chosen for an interior involves good taste, psychology, physiology and other factors. However, from a standpoint of interior lighting, it should be of relatively high reflectance, and non spectral (not glossy) finish. People are emo- tionally responsive to their surroundings, and color is one of tlie factors that deter- mines what those surroundings are like. The colors of the red end of the spectrum are psychologically wami and stimulating, while those of the blue end create impressions of coolness. Wanii colored surfaces appear to advance toward the observer; hence a room finished in warm colors seems smaller than it really is and conveys an impression of coziness and intimacy. Conversely, cool colors tend to recede; they can be used to increase the apparent size of a room and to create an impersonal atmosphere. A surface appears colored only because it selectively reflects the colors in the incident light. Since different light sources produce light of different spectral composition, it is easily understood that warm colored surfaces will more efficiently reflect light from incandescent lamps tlian from cool white fluorescents. On the otlier hand, a blue or green surface will have a higher reflectance for cool white fluorescent than for incandescent or warm white fluorescent. Due to the multitude of shades and tints of colors available, it is not practical here to show all reflection factors, however the following tabulation lists average values for certain generally recognized colors as a guide: White .80 to 85 Light Gray 65 Light Blue 64 Light Green 72 Medimn Gray 35 Medium Blue 40 Medium Green 41 Dark Gray 15 Dark Blue 08 Dark Green 08 Light Yellow 79 Light Brown 70 Light Pink 70 Medium Yellow 66 Medium Brown 30 Dark Pink 40 Dark YeUow 55 Dark Brown .15 Red 25 Reflectance values suggested for offices and industrial plants are listed in the following table: OflBces & Non- Industrial Industrial Ceilings Walls . Floors . .80— .85 .65— .80 ,50— .60 .35— .55 ,15— .30 .15— .30 202 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Trim Colors 30— .40 Furniture or Machines .30 — .40 Desk and Bench Tops .30 — ..50 10.1.3 GLOSSARY OF ILLUMINATION TERMS The following terms and definitions are reproduced here from the Illuminating Engineering Society Handbooks and other sources. For a more detailed study refer to the latest Illuminating Engineering Society Lighting Handbook. 10.1.3.1 Basic Units of Light Measurement LuMEX, L^r.: the unit of luminous flux; equal to the flux emitted through a unit solid angle ( one steradian ) from a uniform point source of one candle. FooTCANDLE, FC: the unit of illumination when the foot is the unit of length: the illumination on a surface one square foot in area on which is uniformly dis- tributed a flux of one lumen. It equals one lumen per square foot. See Fig. 1. Candle, c: the unit of luminous intensity one lumen; one lumen solid angle ( steradian ) . Fig. 1 — Relationship between candles, lumens, and footcan- dles. A uniform point source (lu- minous intensity or candlepower ■» 1 candle) is shown at the cen- ter of a sphere of 1-foot radius. It is assumed that the sphere is perfectly transparent (i.e., has reflectance). The illumination at any point on the sphere is 1 footcandle (1 lumen per square foot). The solid angle subtended by the area, A, B, C, D is 1 stera- dian. The flux density is there- fore 1 lumen per steradian, which correspyonds to a lumin- ous intensity cf 1 candle, &3 originally assumed. The sphere has a total area of 12.57 (4t) square feet, and there is a luminous flux of 1 lumen falling on each square foot. Thus the source provides a to- tal of 12.57 lumens. Candlepower, cp: luminous intensity expressed in candles. Apparent candlepower of an extended source (at a specified distance): the candlepower of a point source which would produce the same illumination at tliat distance. 10.1.3.2 General Radiation Terms Units of wave length: Angstrom, A: unit of wavelengtli equal to 10"'° (one ten-billionth) meter. Millimicron, \im-: unit of wavelength equal to 10" (one one-billion tli ) meter. Micron, /x; unit of wavelength equal to 10" (one-millionth) meter. Mega: prefix meaning one million (10"). Kilo: prefix meaning one thousand (10'). Manual Recommendations 203 MiLLi: prefix meaning one one-tliousandth of (10"^). Micro: prefix meaning one one-millionth of (10"). Steradian ( UNIT SOLID ANGLE ) : a solid angle subtending an area on the surface of a sphere equal to the square of the sphere radius. Temperature radiator: a radiator, the radiant flux density (radiant emit- tance) of which is determined by its temperature and tlie material and character of its surface, and is independent of its previous history. Blackbody (complete radiator, Planckian radiator): a temperature radiator of uniform temperature of which tire radiant emittance in all parts of the spectrum is the maximum obtainable from any temperature radiator operating at the same temperature. A blackbody will absorb all radiant energy falling upon it. It is prac- tically realized in the form of a cavity with opaque walls at uniform temperature and widi a small opening for observation purposes. Graybody: a temperature radiator the spectral emissivity of which is less than unity and tlie same at all wavelengths. Total emissivity (ei): the ratio of the radiant flux density (radiant emittance) at an element of a temperature radiator to that at an element of a blackbody at the same temperature. 10.1.3.3 Light Source Terms Lamp: an artificial source of light; by extension the term is also used for artificial sources radiating in regions of the spectrum adjacent to tlie visible. (A portable lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps with housing, shade, reflector, or other accessories is also commonly called a "lamp." In order to distinguish between such a complete hmiinaire and the light source within it, the latter is some- times called a "bulb.") Incandescent filament lamp: a lamp in which light is produced by a filament heated to incandescence by the flow of an electric current through it. Electric discharge lamp: a lamp in which light (or radiant energy near the visible spectrum) is produced by the passage of an electric current through a metallic vapor or a gas. Mercury lamp: an electric discharge lamp in which tiie major portion of the radiation is produced by the excitation of mercury atoms. Fluorescent lamp: an electric discharge lamp in which a fluorescing coating ("phosphor") transfomis some of the ultraviolet energy generated by the discharge into light. Short-arc lamp: a high-pressure electric discharge lamp in which the arc length is comparable to the arc diameter. Carbon arc lamp: an electric discharge lamp in which light is produced by an arc discharge between carbon electrodes. One or more of the electrodes may contain chemicals which contribute imi^ortantly to the radiation. Photoflash lamp: a lamp in which a high-intensity light of short duration is produced by the rapid burning of combustible metal or otherwise solid material in an atmosphere of oxygen. Electroluminescent lamp: a lamp in which light is produced by the exci- tation of a phosphor in an electric field. Bui. 600 204 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Ballast: a device used with an electric discharge lamp to provide the necessary circuit conditions for starting, and to limit the operating current. Reflectorized LAMP: a lamp in which part of the bulb is coated externally or internally with a specular reflecting material for the purpose of redirecting some of the emitted flux. Luminous efficacy of a light source: the ratio of tlie total luminous flux emitted by the source to the total power input to the source. In the case of an electric lamp, efficacy is expressed in lumens per watt. 10.1.3.4 Photometric Testing Terms Caxdlepower distribution ctTRVE: a curve showing the variation of luminous intensity of a lamp or luminaire with angle of emission. A vertical candle power distribution curve is obtained by taking measurements at various angles of elevation in a vertical plane through the light center; unless the angle of azimuth is specified, a vertical curve is assumed to represent an average such as would be obtained by rotating the unit about its \'ertical axis. A horizontal candlepoiver distribution curve represents measurements made at various angles of azimuth in a horizontal plane dirough the light center. Isocaxdle line: a line plotted on any appropriate coordinates to show all the directions in space, about a source of light, in which the candle-power is the same. For a complete ex-ploradon the line is a closed cur\'e. A series of such curves, usually for equal increments of candlepower, is called an isocandle diagram. IsoLux ( isofootcandle ) LINE: a line plotted on any appropriate coordinates to show all the points on a surface where the illumination is the same. For a com- plete exploration the line is a closed curv'e. A series of such lines for various illumi- nation values is called an isolux (isofootcandle) diagram. Zonal constant: a factor by which the mean candlepower emitted in a given angular zone by a source of light is multiplied to obtain the number of lumens in the zone. Beams spread: the angle enclosed by two lines which intersect the candle- power distribution curve at the points where the candlepower is equal to ten per cent of its maximum. Life test: a test in which lamps are operated under specified conditions for a specified length of time, for the purpose of ol^taining information on lamp life. Measurements of photometric and electrical characteristics may be taken at specified intervals. 10.1.3.5 Control of Light Reflection: a general term for the process by which a part of the incident flux leaves a surface or medium from the incident side. Regxjlar or specular reflection: the process by which a portion of the inci- dent flux is re-emitted at tlie specular angle without scattering. Specut-ar angle: the angle between tlie perpendicular to the surface and the reflected ray that is nvunerically equal to the angle of incidence and that lies in tlie same plane as the incident ray and the perpendicular but on the opposite side of the perpendicular. Diffuse reflection: the process by which a portion of the incident flux is re-emitted in a non-image-forming (diffused) state. Manual Recommendations 205 Compound or mlxed reflection: the simultaneous occurrence of regular and diffuse reflection, in any proportion. Reflectance: tlie ratio of the flux reflected by a surface or medium to the incident flux. The quantity reported may be total reflectance, regular (specular) reflectance, diffuse reflectance, or spectral reflectance, depending on the component measured. Transmission: a general term for tire process by which a part of die incident flux leaves a surface or medium on a side other than the incident side. Regular transmission: the process by which a portion of the incident flux is re-emitted from a surface or medium on the non-incident side without scattering (no diffusion). Diffuse transmission: the process by which a portion of the incident flux is re-emitted from a surface or medium on the non-incident side in a non-image- forming (diffused) state. Transmittance : the ratio of the flux transmitted by a medium to the incident flux. The quantity reported may be total transmittance, regular transmittance, diffuse transmittance or spectral transmittance, depending on the component measvu-ed. Absorption: a general term for the process by which a part of the incident flux at a surface or medium is dissipated within the medium. Absorptance: the ratio of tlie flux absorbed by a medium to the incident flux. The sum of the total reflectance, the total transmittance, and the absorptance is 1. Perfect diffusion: diftusion in which flux is scattered in accord with Lam- bert's Cosine Law. Lambert's Cosine Law: a distribution of flux such that tlie flux per solid angle in any direction from a plane surface varies as the cosine of the angle between that direction and the peipendicular to the surface. The photometric brightness of such a surface is uniform at all angles of view. Refraction: the bending of a ray of light as it passes obliquely from one medium to another in which its velocity is different. Polarization: a phenomenon in which tlie transverse vibrations of light waves are oriented in a specific plane. Filter: a device which changes, by transmission, tlie magnitude and/or the spectral composition of the flux incident on it. Filters are called selective (or colored) or neutral, according to whether or not they alter the spectral distribution of the incident flux. Reflector: a device used to redirect tlie luminous flux from a source, pri- marily by the process of reflection. Refractor: a device used to redirect the luminous flux from a source, pri- marily by the process of refraction. Diffuser: a device used to redirect the luminous flux from a source, primarily by the process of diffuse transmission. Louver: an opaque or translucent member used to shield a source from direct view at certain angles, or to absorb unwanted light. Retro-reflector (reflex reflector): a device designed to reflect light in a direction close to that at which it is incident, whatever the angle of incidence. 206 Bulletin 660 — American Railway E ngineering Association 10.1.3.6 Terms Relating to Vision Primary line of sight: tlie line connecting the point of observation and the fixation point. (Point of observation: the midpoint of the base line connecting tlie centers of rotation of the two eyes.) Visual field: the locus of objects which at a given moment can be seen by one or the other of the two eyes. The portion where the fields of the two eyes overlap is called tlie hinocidar visual field. Central vision: the seeing of objects in the central part of tlie visual field, approximately .3 degrees in diameter. Peripheral \tsion: the seeing of ol)jects displaced peripherally from the primary line of sight, and outside the central part of the \isual field. Pupillary apertures: the opening in the iris which admits light into the eye, The size of the aperture varies with the photometric brightness of the visual field, and the brightness distribution. Adaptation: the process by which the eye adapts itself to light, involving primarily a change in the sensitivity of the photoreceptors. Accommodation: the process by which the eye changes focus for objects at various distances, involving changes in the shape and position of the crystalline lens. Visual angle: tlie angle which an object subtends at the optical center of the eye. Visual acuity: the ability to distinguish fine details; quantitatively the reciprocal of the angular size in minutes of the critical detail which is just large enough to be seen. Speed of vision: the reciprocal of the duration of exposure required for some- thing to be seen. Brightness contrast within a visual task: (Bi — Ba)/Bi, or (Bo — Bi)/Bi where Bi is tlie photometric brightness of the background and B^ die photometric brightness of tlie object. The fonii of the equation must be specified. Brightness ratio: the ratio between the photometric brightnesses of any two relatively large areas in the visual field. Glare: the effect of brightnesses or brightness difl:erences within the visual field sufficiently high to cause annoyance, discomfort, or loss in visual performance. Direct glare: glare resulting from high-brightness or insufficiently shielded light sources in the field of view, or reflecting areas of high brightness and large area. Reflected glare: glare resulting from specular reflections of high-brightness sources in polished surfaces in the field of view. 10.1.3.7 Interior Lighting Terms Luminaxre: a complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps togetlier with the parts designed to distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps, and to connect the lamps to the power supply. General lighting: lighting designed to i)rovide a uniform level of illumination throughout the area involved. Manual Recommendations 207 Supplementary lighting: lighting used to provide a specific amount or quality of illumination which cannot readily be obtained by the general lighting system, and which supplements the general lighting system. Local lighting: illumination provided over a relatively small area or confined space without any surrounding general lighting. Portable lighting: lighting equipment designed for manual portability. Emergency lighting: a lighting system designed to supply illumination essen- tial to safety of life and property, in the event of failure of the normal supply. Hazardous location: an area where ignitable vapors or dust may cause a fire or explosion created by energy emitted from lighting or other electrical . equipment. Explosion- proof: enclosed in a case which is capable of withstanding an explosion of a specific gas or vapor which may occur within it, and/or preventing the ignition of a specific gas or vapor surrounding die enclosure by sparks, flashes, or explosion of the gas or vapor within. It must operate at such an external tempera- ture that a surrounding flammable atmosphere will not be ignited thereby. Vapor-tight: designed and approved for installation in damp or wet locations. Dust-proof: so constructed or protected that dust will not interfere widi suc- cessful operation. Dust-tight: so constnicted that dust will not enter the enclosing case. High bay: industrial space where the ceiling or truss height is relatively high, usually above 25 or 30 feet. Low bay: industrial area where die ceiling or truss height is relatively low, usually under 25 feet. Methods of luminaire mounting: Surface-mounted (ceiling-mounted): mounted directly on die ceiling. Suspended, pendant: hung from the ceiling by supports. Recessed: mounted above the ceiling, or behind a wall or other surface. Flush- mounted: mounted above the ceiling (or behind a wall or other surface), the opening of the luminaire level with die surface. Regressed: mounted above the ceiling, the opening of the luminaire above the ceiling line. Shielding angle ( of a luminaire ) : the angle between a Iiorizontal line through the light center and the line of sight at which the bare source first becomes visible. Cut-off angle (of a LUMiNAmE): the angle, measured up from nadir, between the vertical axis and die first hue of sight at which the bare source is not visible. Coefficient of utilization: the ratio of the lumens received on the \vork plane to the lumens emitted by the lamps. Work plane: die plane at which work is done, and at which ilhnnination is specified and measured. Unless otherwise indicated, this is assumed to be a horizontal plane 30 inches above the floor. Interflectance : the ratio of the lumens received on the work plane to the lumens emitted by die luminaires. Room ratio: a number indicating room proportions, calculated from length, width, and ceiling height. 208 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Room index: a letter representing a range of room ratios. Mounting height: \he distance from the floor to the light center of the Imninaire. Spacing-to-mountustg-height ratio: ratio of the distance between luminaires to the mounting height. Maintenance factor: the ratio of die illumination on a given area after a period of time to the initial illumination on the same area. The initial illumination may be at a point or averaged over an area, but the final illumination must be evaluated in the same manner. The time at which the final value is measured must be representative of the conditions desired, i.e., at the time when the illumination has depreciated to a minimum or to an average value characteristic of the cleaning, servicing, and re-lamping schedule. The conditions should be specified by referring to "M.F. min." or "M.F. avg." The usual meaning is taken to be the minimum maintenance factor. Troffer: a long recessed lighting unit usually installed with the opening flush with the ceiling; derived from "trough" and "coffer." Louverall ceiling: a general lighting system comprising a wall-to-wall in- stallation of multi-cell louvers shielding the light sources mounted above it. Luminous ceiling: a lighting system comprising a continuous surface of diffus- ing material with light sources mounted above it. Cove lighting: a system comprising light sources shielded by a ledge or horizontal recess, and distributing light over the ceiling and upper wall. Cornice lighting: a system comprising light sources shielded by a panel parallel to the wall and attached to the ceiling, and distributing light over the wall. Valance lighting: a system comprising light sources shielded by a panel parallel to die wall at the top of a window. DmECTiONAL lighting: lighting designed to illuminate the work plane, or an object, predominantly from a preferred direction. Accent lighting: directional lighting to emphasize a particular object. Mat surface: a surface from which the reflection is predominandy diffuse, with or without a negligible specular component. 10.1.3.8 Daylighting Terms Altitude: the angular distance of a heavenly body measured on that great circle which passes perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, through the body and through the zenith. It is measured positively from the horizon by tlie zenidi, from to 90 degrees. Azimuth: the angular distance between the vertical plane containing a given line or a celestial body and the plane of the meridian. Sun bearing: the angle measured in the plane of the horizon dirough which a vertical plane at a right angle to the window wall must be rotated to contain the sun. Light, sun: direct visible radiation from the sun (solar illumination). — , sky: visible radiation from tlie sun redirected by the sky. — , ground: visible radiation from the sun and sky reflected by surfaces below the plane of the horizon. Manual Recommendations 209 Sky, cleab: less than 30 per cent clouds cover. — , PARTLY CLOUDY: 30 to 70 per cent clouds cover. — , CLOUDY: more than 70 per cent clouds cover. — , overcast: 100 per cent clouds cover, no sun visible. Solar time: time measured by the daily motion of the sun. Noon is taken at the instant in which the center of the sun passes the observer's meridian. (This is the time measured by sun dials.) Clerestory: that part of a building which rises clear of the roofs of other parts, and whose walls contain windows for lighting tlie interior. Penetration: any opening or arrangement of openings (normally filled with media for control) for the admission of daylight. Orientation: positioning of a building with respect to compass directions. Service period: number of hours per day for which the dayhghting system provides a specified illumination level, often stated as a monthly average. 10.1.3.9 Street Lighting Terms Lighting unit: the assembly of pole or post with bracket and luminaire. Street lighting luminaire: a complete lighting device consisting of a light source togetlier with its direct appurtenances, such as globe, reflector, refractor, housing, and such support as is integral with the housing. The pole, post, or bracket is not considered a part of the luminaire. Bracket or mast arm: an attachment to a lamp post or pole from which a luminaire or lighting fixture is suspended. Lamp post: a standard support provided with necessary internal attachments for wiring and external attachments for brackets and luminaire. Pole: a standard support generally used where overhead lighting distribution circuits are employed. Mounting height: the vertical distance between the roadway surface and the center of the light source in the luminaire. Spacing: the distance in feet between successive lighting units, measured along the center line of a street. Reference line: either of tlie two radial lines where tlie surface of the cone of maximum candlepovver is intersected by a vertical plane parallel to the ciub line and passing through the light center of the luminaire. Width line: the radial line (the one which makes tlie larger angle with tlie reference line) which passes through the point of one-half maximum candlepower on the lateral candlepower distribution curve plotted on tlie surface of the cone of maximum candlepower. Lateral width of a light distoibution: the lateral angle between the reference line and the width line, measured in the cone of maximum candlepower. This angular widtli includes the line of maxinmm candlepower. 210 Bulletin 660 — American RaiK\'ay Engineering Association 10.2 LIGHTING OF FIXED PROPERTIES 10.2.1 OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING— FLOODLIGHTING IN RAILROAD YARDS 10.2.1.1 General Adequate lighting of railroad yards, work tasks and areas, storage areas and platforms is essential to promote safety to personnel, expedite operations, and re- duce pilferage and damage. The purpose of this section is to present recommended illumination levels applicable to the varied tasks encountered on railroad properties and to guide the lighting designer in the proper application of the lighting medium to assure satis- factory visibility to all concerned. Included are descriptions of the visual tasks encountered on railroad properties, design data, and pictorial illustrations of typical lighting installations. Recommended levels of illumination included herein v^^ere, in many cases, determined by scientific evaluation of the seeing tasks, and the Manual material presented is a joint effort of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Outdoor Produc- tive Areas subcommittee of the Industrial Lighting Committee, together with per- sonnel from the former AAR Lighting Committee and former AREA Committee 18. Railroad properties can be divided into general areas which have different seeing tasks within them. By considering each type of property separately, and further breaking down each type into areas involving specialized seeing tasks, specific levels of illumination can be recommended that cover most variations among individual railroads. Refer to Table I for recommended illumination levels. Differ- ent levels may be required if closed circuit television is utilized to aid in operations. Railroad regulations should be observed with respect to the location of any lighting equipment above or adjacent to tracks. 10.2.1.2 Retarder Classification Yards (a) General The large and often highly automated retarder classification yard, with its supporting yards and servicing facilities, presents a number of different seeing tasks that are considered under the following locations ( See Fig. 1 ) : (b) Receiving Yard Inbound freight trains generally pull into a receiving yard where road loco- motives and cabin cars are vmcoupled and moved to servicing or storage tracks. Air lines betsveen cars may be disconnected, cars may be inspected, journals lubri- cated, axles tested, etc. A locomotive then pushes the cars to the hump for classification. Seeing tasks throughout tlie area consist of walking between cars, bleeding air systems, opening journal box covers, and observing air hoses, safety appli- ances, etc. (c and d) Hump Area The hump area includes those facilities between the leaving end of the receiving yard and the entering end of the main retarder. Located in diis area are the hump conductor, scale operator, and the car uncoupler. Special facilities in this area may include a car inspection pit, broken wheel flange detector, auto- Manual Recommendations 211 matic journal lul^ricator and a facility to insert disposable wedges into couplers to insure that they are held open for coupling to other cars in the yard. In some yards, a hump conductor operates remotely contiolled power switches to route the car onto the proper track in the classification yard. Seeing tasks in the hump area are diversified. The scale operator is usually required to visually check each car number to insure that the weight is recorded against the proper car. The hump conductor also should confirm the car number against his list, to insure that the car is sent to the proper yard track. The car inspectors must have a high level of light on the underneath surfaces of the cars and on the running gear to permit ready and precise inspection of a car that is in motion. The inspector also often determines whether the car has a roller bearing journal and pushes a by-pass arrangement to prevent waste of oil by the automatic journal lubricator, if used. The car uncoupler should be able to see the uncoupling mechanism in order to safely reach it while the car is in motion. The operator of the wedge inserter, if one is used, must be able to accurately see the coupler in order to apply the wedge, again with the car in motion. The hump conductor, car inspector, car uncoupler and wedge operator should have supplemental lighting, in addition to general lighting in the hump area as indicated in Table I. (e) Control Tower and Retarder Area Many retarder classification yards are equipped with various methods for determining car speed, "rollability," track occupancy, etc. These devices auto- matically set retarders to permit a car to roll from the hump to its proper position in the yard without action by the control tower operator. Other less automated yards may require the operator to visually check the extent of track occupancy in the yard, gage the speed of the car coming from the hump and manually set the amount of retardation to be applied to the car. Even in the automated yard, the operator may also be required to do this manually in the event of failure of one or more of the automatic features. In many yards, the control tower operator is expected to check the car numl^er against a switching list and see that the car goes to the correct track. Accordingly, it is essential that the operator quickly and accurately identify the moving car. Under clear atmospheric conditions, it is important that there be no direct light projected toward the operator, and this covers a considerable angle. However, under adverse atmospheric conditions of dense fog, for example, it is general prac- tice to utihze auxiliary lighting equipment on the far side of the tracks opposite the retarder control tower which will reveal the outlines of cars in silhouette. (f) Head End of Classification Yard After a car is classified and leaves the retarders, it rolls along one of several "lead" tracks with various switches branching off each lead track into the classifi- cation yard tracks. The operator should be able to see that the car actually clears switch points and clearance points so that following cars will not be impeded or perhaps damaged. If a car does not clear, a locomotive enters tlie yard to move the car, and if for some reason a car is sent down the wrong yard track, the loco- motive must pull it back. Some highly automated yards have indicating systems to show locations of all cars and track occupancy conditions on the classification tracks. Again, if automated features fail, it is as important for the operator to be 212 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association able to see yard conditions as accurately in the automated yard as in the less automated one. (g) Body of Classification Yard A relatively large number of parallel tracks form the body of the classification yard. Cars having a common initial destination are sent from the hump to a given track in the classification yard. In many yards, tlie operator must be able to see the body of the yard sufficiently well to detennine the extent of track occupancy. On some railroads, men are required to move along cars in the body of the classifica- tion yard to couple air hoses, pack journal boxes, close journal box covers, etc. At the leaving end of the body of the classification yard, skatemen place track skates to stop moving cars at the desired location and remove the skates later for pullout. Some yards use automatic car stoppers instead of skates. (h) Full-Out End of Classification Yard The pull-out end of the classification yard includes the area where yard tracks converge into one or more ladder tracks in leaving the yard. In this area, switch- men may walk along the track, ride standing on switcher step, cling to the end car to observe switch position, or step down while still in motion to throw switches as required. Two or more ladder tracks may converge into two pull-out tracks connected by crossovers and also connected to tlie lead tracks to the departure or local yards. Switches for crossovers and lead tracks are sometimes power-operated from an adjacent control point by the switchmen with consequent increased switching speeds. Switchmen must be able to see that the switches take die position directed by the controls. (i) Dispatch or Forwarding Yard Some railroads pull strings of cars from classification tracks into a dispatch yard to make up a train. Here, air hoses are coupled, journal boxes are inspected, their covers closed, and perhaps other inspections are made. As in the receiving yard, the main seeing task in the dispatch yard consists of walking between tracks. 10.2.1.3 Hump and Car Rider Classification Yards General In contrast to the often highly automated retarder classification yards, there are many yards that do not use retarders and tower operators for classification of cars. This type of yard, referred to as the "hump and car rider" classification yard, depends upon manpower for operation. An incoming freight train is ijushed to the hump where it is uncoupled and a car rider climbs aboard each car, or "cut" of a few cars. The cars are allowed to roll from the hump toward the classification yard tracks, where switchmen, often directed by a loudspeaker from the himip, manually operate switches to permit the car to roll onto the proper track. As the car rolls along its classification track, the car rider gages the distance to other cars on the track and manually applies the car brakes, by turning the brake wheel, to slow the car so that the impact will not be severe. Upon stopping the car, the rider gets off and walks back to the hump to repeat the riding cycle. This type of classification yard may be supported by a receiving yard and a dispatch yard where the same seeing tasks are encountered as in their retarder yard counterparts. Manual Recommendations 213 The seeing tasks in the classification yard, and around the hump, are con- siderably different in the rider-type yard than in the retarder yard. Around the hump area, a yard clerk should be able to read car nmnbers, cars must be uncoupled, and car riders must be able to see grab irons, ladders, etc., to safety climb onto the cars. Switchmen operating along the lead track must have safe seeing conditions to enable them to walk along the lead track and operate switches. Car riders on the cars rolling into the yard should be able to see cars on the track ahead so that they can brake adequately to reduce impact and pre- vent consequent damage to lading. The rider must then be able to see to get off the car and walk back along yard tracks to tlie hump. 10.2.1.4 Flat Switching Yards General Nearly all railroads have many relatively small flat switching yards on their systems. Often a flat switching yard is located adjacent to an industrial area where cars are received from industries and at some period of the day, or night, these cars are moved to a larger classification yard for further forwarding. Empty cars may also be returned to the flat switching yard for distribution locally to industries for loading. Operations at the flat switching yard consist of a switchman at the head end operating one of perhaps a half-dozen or so switches to permit a locomo- tive to push or pull cars onto a given track in the yard. The locomotive may then return for more cars and push or pull them onto another track, etc., until the cars 'are arranged in the desired order on the yard tracks, from which the cars are pulled out to move to some other location. The only seeing requirement in most yard areas of this type is for safe walk- ing conditions for switchmen around the head end and pull-out end switches. A yard supervisor may also be required to read car numbers at the head end of the yard in order to assign cars to their proper tracks. A locomotive pushes cars into the body of tlie yard, and in most cases, the locomotive headUght furnishes suffi- cient light to provide adequate seeing for the locomotive engineer. General lighting is reconomended over the entire yard to permit switchmen to see the location of standing cars. Additional light should be provided in the area of the switches at the head end and pull-out end of the yard. If a yardmaster or yard clerk must read car numbers, local lighting must be provided at his location. 10.2.1.5 Trailer-on-Flatcar Yards General Hauling highway-type trailers loaded on special railroad flatcars has grown rapidly in recent years. There are several types of flatcars in use, and several methods of placing trailers on them. One of the most prevalent methods in use is to provide a ramp leading from the ground level up to tlie floor level of the flat- cars. The trailer is backed up the ramp by highway tractor, then backed or pushed from one flatcar to the next until it is on its prescribed car, working from the (back car forward. Certain specialized methods are used in some places to hft and pivot the trailer onto flatcars from the side. Once the trailers are on the flatcars, most railroads use specialized tie-down equipment and methods to secure the trailers for shipment by rail. 214 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Seeing tasks involved require the tractor operator to be able to back up or dri\e along the floor of the flatcars, uncouple the tractor and pull ofi^. Men must then tie down the trailers to the flatcars, requiring them to be able to see beneath the trailers. 10.2,1,6 Container-on-Flatcar Yards General In container-on-flatcar yards, demountable load containers are detached from the trailer and loaded onto the railroad flatcars, or vice versa, by crane. Usually, the trailers are lined up parallel with the flatcars. A crane straddUng both the trailers and flatcars picks up the demountable containers and places them on the cars. The seeking task involves the transfer of the container between the trailer wheel frame and the flat car, also locating, releasing, and tying down of the container. Other types of container-on-flatcar operations may employ difi^erent methods of loading and unloading, but the illumination required is similar. Manual Recommendations 215 n^°+'y;s *I4 D n UOI439<^ *^ — - — . — — ¥sl air 5 53 flop -• ^ 1 i ' ' 1 - fou idr r ^ i 1 -- j 2 k 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Morrus or scrtice 2k Decline in light output due to dirt, high-bay areas. Manual Recommendations 219 100 ^ fc-> — 1 — Ottict ^ ^n 90 ^ ■"-> -*^ 1 s. ' — ■ ^~~ Labot'atdrr t^ 60 \ s k-. — . "1 f^ _ _^ u 3 0. \ s. ~^ ^ — _Woo^ln^ ^p O \ - — 4 ^° 1-4 ..^ ,00. — — — —J 2 60 '■ t- iS a. <»0 - k 6 ~i nS 12 14 l5 it 20 22 2V" MONTHS OP SERVICE Decline in light output due to dirt, low-bay areas. 10.3.1.2 Cleaning 1. Cleaning Schedule: The cleaning frequency required for a particular plant or office can best be determined by taking periodic light meter readings after the first cleaning. When footcandles have dropped 15 to 20 percent it is time to clean again. An alternate method would be to have an annual cleaning program scheduling each office area or shop to be cleaned at a definite date. This metliod permits one trained crew to do all the cleaning as they progress from one plant to the other. The scheduHng can be planned taking into account dirt conditions, fixture ventilation, time required to clean each luminaire, and size of maintenance crew. 2. How to Clean Luminaire: Lighting equipment should be washed, not just wiped off with a dry cloth. Tests have proved thorough washing reclaims 10 to 15 percent more light tlian mere dry wiping. Also, dry wiping often will cause grit to scratch the reflecting surface. 3. Recommended Cleaning Procedure: (When reflectors or glassware can be taken down): a. Scrub the reflectors or glassware with sponge or soft brush while they are immersed in cleaning solution. b. Rinse in clean warm water. c. Do not immerse lamp bases. ( When reflectors cannot be taken down ) : a. Use a cleaning agent that removes dirt quickly and thoroughly and re- quires no rinsing. b. Wipe off excess moisture with clean cloth. Uul. GOO 220 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 4. Aluminum Reflectors: Aluminum reflectors require special attention and should not be cleaned with strong alkaline or acid cleaning agents. Most cleaning powders are suitable for use on aluminum. Encrusted dirt can be removed with fine steel wool and liquid wax. A thin film of liquid wax may be applied to fixture parts to protect surface between cleaning periods. 5. Cleaning Outdoor Lighting Equipment: It is often impracticable to use cleaning solutions and rinsing water outdoors. Therefore, a dry detergent is recommended. Apply it with a soft damp cloth, allow to dry, and wipe off with a soft dry cloth. Glassware may be cleaned witli fine steel wool and wiped off with a dry, clean cloth. 10.3.1.3 Relamping i. Group Relamping: The labor costs saved by group relamping usually more than compensate for the value of the depreciated lamps that are thrown away before they bum out. Other advantages also accompany group relamping such as more light, fewer work interruptions, better appearance of tlie lighting system, and less maintenance of auxiliary equipment. Group relamping should be related to lamp life but may be varied slightly to fit into convenient schedules when there v/ill be less interruption of work. Filament and fluorescent lamps are both well suited for a group-relamping program. 2. Spot Relamping: Some areas require spot replacement because of a hazardous location or to maintain appearances. In tliese areas and locations where specialized high-cost lamps are in use, spot relamping may prove to be the most economical method of replacement. 10.3.1.4 Voltages 1. Light sources are designed to operate most economically when supplied with rated voltages. Voltages either too high or too low will affect the life, eflBciency and economy of the lamps. 2. Fluorescent ballasts are designed for 118, 208, 236, 277 or 460 volts, and published lamp data are based on these designed potentials being applied. Permissible variations from rated voltages allow the ranges of 110-125, 190-216, 220-250, 260-290 and 440-480. Voltages higher than the maximum limit will shorten lamp and ballast life. Voltages below the minimum limit will cause uncertain starting, short lamp life, and reduce lighting efficiency. 3. Incandescent lamps are commonly available in ratings of 115, 120, and 125 volts. Lamps should be used with ratings nearest to the actual branch circuit voltage. Line voltages higher than rating will give increased light output, but will shorten lamp life. Line voltages below rating will extend life, but will reduce light output 3 percent for each 1 percent drop in voltage. 4. Mercury-\ apor lamp ballasts are available in constant wattage or regulated output type that will maintain rated current and wattage on lamps when the line voltage changes a maximum of plus or minus 13 percent from design voltage. If it is necessary to use either reactor or autotransfonner type ballasts, the tap con- Manual Recommendations 221 nections on the ballast should be closely matched to branch circuit voltage, as these ballasts will only maintain rated current and wattage on lamps when the line voltage changes a maximum of plus or minus 5 percent. Lamp voltage higher than designed level may short lamp life, and voltages below design level will reduce illumination and may cause imcertain starting. 10.3.1.5 Painting 1. Painted ceilings, walls, and equipment should be kept clean and preferably finished in a light matte surface colors to provied high ceiling and wall reflection factors. This will increase actual footcandles because light is reflected to the work- ing plane. Dark surroundings absorb and waste light. 10.3.1.6 Labor-Saving Maintenance Devices 1. Many devices have been designed to simplify maintenance problems, save time, and promote safety. A few of these tools are suction-cup lamp changers, special ladders and platforms, portable scaff^olds, and disconnecting hangers. 10.3.1.7 Summary 1. Lighting maintenance problems can be minimized if consideration is given to the right fixture design and lamp type when making installations. 2. Fixture design affects the rate at which airborne dirt collects. Units with closed tops collect dirt faster than those with ventilated tops. With a ventilated fixture, tlie temperature difi^erence between the lamp and surrounding air creates convection currents that carry the dirt past the reflector and lamp. 3. Dirt accumulation on a reflecting surface can be minimized if the reflector is sealed from tiie air, as in a dust-tight fixture or a reflector-type lamp. Dirt accumulation on a reflector lamp has little or no effect because tlie reflector is actually sealed inside the glass bulb; also, a new reflector is automatically provided when the lamp is replaced. 10.4 LAMPS 10.4.1 ELECTRIC LAMP CHARACTERISTICS A description of the more common types of electrical lamps used in general lighting applications are included in the following paragraphs. For more detailed information, it is suggested that the Illuminating Engineer- ing Society Lighting Handbook, as well as the electric lamp manufacturers be consulted. Electric lamps may be divided into two major types, namely: incandescent- filament lamps and electric-discharge lamps. Since tlie operation of die incandescent- filament lamps is less complex than that of the electric discharge types, tliey will be discussed first. 10.4.1.1 Incandescent Filament Lamps Incandescent-filament type lamps can also be divided into two major groups — large and miniature. Although there is no sharp dividing line between the two groups, the large lamp classification generally refers to those with larger bulbs and medium or mogual bases which are for operation on circuits of 30 volts or higher. General- lighting lamps are large lamps, as well as those for many specialized applications, such as locomotive-and-train-lighting, spot-and floodlighting, etc. Miniature lamps 222 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association leo '140 -1 100 60 / .^'-^ / ./=' \ / '/ ^ \ k p r:^ :^^ ^^^ r^»^»*- -■*-"^ :^ ^vT ^ ^ .< \ ^.^' y V Y \ \^ _ LIF E (a) — - ^H^ 400 300 zoo: 100 5 20 "■-—-^'^ 40 60 80 100 120 PER CENT NORMAL VOLTS 140 Fig. 4 — Characteristics curves for large gas-filled incandescent filament lamps showing the effect of operating a lamp at other than its rated voltage. are mainly types such as automotive, flashlight, indicating, telephone switchboard, etc. The majority of these are relatively low wattage and low voltage type lamps. Basically, an incandescent-filament lamp consists of tungsten-filament hermeti- cally sealed in a vacuum or inert gas (usually argon with small percentages of nitrogen) within a glass bulb. The filament is connected to the lead-in wires which are brought out through the glass and connected to tlie base. Light is produced by heating the tungsten filament to incandescence by passing electric current through it. In common practice, large lamps of 1/3 ampere and higher ratings are gas- filled. The use of an inert filling gas and a coiled filament causes a marked improve- ment in lamp efficiencies over those obtained with vacuum lamps because the filament may be operated at a higher temperature, widi no faster evaporation of the tungsten than in the case of the vacuum lamps. The rating of an incandescent-filament lamp is given by the watts or amperes at a specified voltage. The initial light output (in lumens) and approximate hours hfe, are also based on the lamp being operated at this specified voltage. The efficiency of a filament lamp is the light output in lumens per watt of power input to die lamp. For the conventional large lamps, this will vary from about 10.6 lumens per watt for the 25-watt, 120-volt lamp to about 22 lumens per watt for the 1500-watt, 120-volt lamp. The efficiency of some types of lamps for photographic Manual Recommendations 223 uses is as high as 34 kimens per watt. These have a life of only 3 to 10 hours, depending on the particular lamp. The advantages of the higher efficiency of light production offsets the disadvantage of short life in this appplication. Fig. 4 shows the variations of ohms (filament resistance), amperes, watts, lumens per watt, lumens and life, witli change in voltage apphed to the lamp. It may be noted that a small change in voltage is accompanied by a large change in these items, particularly in lumens and life. 10.4.1.2 Electric Discharge Lamps The electric-discharge type lamps are composed of two major groups, namely: mercury and fluorescent. Mercury The mercury lamps for general lighting service consist essentially of an inner arc tube of quartz, or hard glass to withstand the high temperatures resulting when the lamp builds up to normal wattage. The outer tube is made of hard or soft glass, depending on the lamp type. This outer tube shields the arc tube from changes in temperature and serves to filter certain wavelengths of the arc radiation. Two main electron-emissive electrodes are located at opposite ends of the inner tube (see Fig. 5). Near the upper main electrode is a third, or starting electrode in series with a ballasting resistor and connected to the lower electrode lead wire. amtinc clccthok imuft MMN CLCcrwoe — 3k^#0frTM0 IXMS AffC rxm. cttrrtm- one* MAIN tLfcmoH Fig. 5 — Sketch showing principal parts of the A-HI-T or 11-400- A 1 mercury lamp. 224 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association The arc tube contains a small amount of argon gas which facilitates starting of the arc before the mercury is \'aporized. When voltage is applied, an electric field is set up between the starting electrode and the adjacent main electrode. This ionizing potential causes current to flow-. As tlie main arc strikes, the heat generated gradually vaporizes the mercur>\ When tlie arc tube is filled with mercury vapor, it creates a low resistance path for tlie current to flow between the main electrodes. When this takes place the starting electrode and its high resistance path automatically become inactive. Light is obtained from mercury lamps by the passing of electric current through the mercury vapor. The light emitted appears to be blue-green-white. There is an absence of red radiation in the low and medium pressure lamps and most colored objects appear distorted in color \alue. Blue, green and yellow colors are emphasized. Orange and red appear brownish or black. For this reason, and because several minutes may be required for restarting a mercury lamp after a momentary power interruption, incandescent lamps are often combined with filament lamps in installations. Color impro\ed mercury lamps are now available in various sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 watts. These have a fluorescent coating applied to the inside of the outer bulb. This coating is acti\ated by ultraviolet radiation and converts this energy, which otherwise is wasted, into light to fill in the red portion of the spectrum. The resultant color of light is about the same as is obtained from the use of equal wattages of mercury and filament lamps. Electric arcs have an inherent negative resistance characteristic. Therefore, current hmiting equipment is necessary. This equipment, called a ballast, limits the current by the inductance of its windings. It introduces some wattage loss, and has a power factor of about 50 to 60 percent. Low power factor is usually corrected by a capacitor which is built into the ballast. Its use raises the power factor to about 90 percent or better. The ballasts are designed for the specific voltage, frequency and lamp with which they are to be used. Fluorescent Lamps The fluorescent lamp is classified as an eletric discharge lamp. It consists of a tubular bulb with an electrode sealed in each end. In the tube is a small amount of mercury and a small amount of argon or kr>'pton gas to facilitate starting. The bulb is coated on the inside with fluorescent powders and phosphors. (See Fig. 6.) It operates much like a mercury lamp in that the flow of current takes place through mercury vapor. However, in the case of the fluorescent lamp the mercury vapor pressure, current density and voltage are so regulated that discharge produces very little visible fight directly but does crowd as much energy as possible into the ultraviolet radiation at one specific point — tlie 2537 Angstrom line. When the phosphors receive this rachation, they convert tlie shortwave ultraviolet radiation into visible light. The efficiency of the fluorescent lamp is much greater than that of the in- candescent lamp. In the standard warm white color, lamp efficiencies range from 26 Imnens per watt for the 4-watt lamp to about 69 lumem per watt for tlie 96-inch instant starting slimline lamp which consumes 74 watts. A fluorescent lamp has a fairly rapid dec-fine in light output during the early part of its life. During tlie first 100 hours of burning this may amount to about 10 percent. However, tlie deterio- ration of the remaining life of the lamp is less rapid. The depreciation in light output Manual Recommendations 225 TUU FIUED WriM ARGON OAS AND MfRCURY VAFOt MnCURT INSIDE OF TUBE COATED CATHODE COATB) WITH FLUORESCENT MATERIAL WITH ACnvS MATBUM. Fig. 6 — Cut-away sketch showing the construction of a fluorescent lamp. is due chiefly to a gradual deterioration of the phosphor powders and a blackening of the inside of the tube. Lamps are also more unstable before burning, and for that reason it is a general practice to bum all electric discharge lamps for 100 hours before rating. The 100-hour results are actually considered the initial rating. The fluorescent lamp is excellent for obtaining colored light since in most cases phosphors are used which generate tlie color directly. With filament lamps colored light is obtained by means of absorption filters which allow only the desired color to pass. The fluorescent lamp is similar to the mercury lamp in that it also requires auxiliary equipment to limit the current. The auxiliary equipment for a preheat cathode type fluorescent lamp consists of: 1. Stepup transformer (if line voltage is not high enough to start the lamp). When used the transfomier is put in the same container as the choke coil. 2. Automatic starter. This allows current to flow through the two cathodes when the line switch is closed and heat them so that they will readily emit electrons. The starter then opens and the lamp starts. 3. BaUast or choke coil. This supplies an inductive voltage "kick" when tlie starter opens which aids in starting the lamp. It also limits the current to the correct operating value for the lamp. 4. Capacitor. The capacitor is used to raise tlie power factor of the lamp and auxiliary equipment to 90 percent or greater. Ballast design is determined by the fluorescent lamp to be used, the circuit voltage and frequency. 10.4.1.3 Typical Fluorescent Lamp Circuits Fluorescent lamps can be grouped into two main categories: preheat and instant start. In the preheat group there are two distinct types: switch start and rapid start. In the instant start group there are also two types: slimline, and lamps desig- nated simply as "instant start." The identifying physical features of these two types of instant start lamps are the bases; slimline lamps have a single-pin base, and "instant start" lamps have shorted bi-pin bases. All these lamps require ballasts to control current supply. A description of their operations will develop this feature further. Every fluorescent lamp has a negative resistance characteristic inherent in its "electric discharge" type of operation. This means that once the lamp starts, the mercury vapor, tiirough which the current passes cannot stabilize current flow. The vapor or gas alone would draw so much current, operation of the lamp would be impossible, so a current limiting device, called a ballast, must be used in the circuit 226 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association AUTOMATIC STARTER CAPACITOR ^ I Fig. 7 to keep the current flow stable and consistent with the purpose of light production. A ballast alone may suffice for single, low-wattage lamps. In general use, however, another device, a capacitor, must be employed to correct tlie relatively low power factor operation of tlie ballast. A capacitor added to the lamp circuit will bring power factor closer to unity and will assure economical current rates to the con- sumer. The figures and captions that follow illustrate and describe details of the principal categories and types of fluorescent lamps. Fig. 7 shows a simplified circuit for a preheat (switch start) fluorescent lamp. When the line switch is closed, current passes through the ballast, the automatic starter, and the cathodes at each end of the lamp. The current heats the cathodes, causing the activating material with which the coiled coil cathodes have been coated, to emit electrons, electrically charging tlie gas around the cathodes. (The preheat current is approximately 50 percent higher than the operating current.) The automatic starter opens the preheat circuit to the cathodes in a matter of seconds, leaving the gas in the lamp as tlie only current path between catliodes. The current flowing through the ballast has created a strong magnetic field around tlie coil windings and through the metal core. When the automatic starter opens, this Manual Recommendations 227 --^ --=^ n^ EXTENSION Winding i PRIMARY WINDING & APACITOR HEATER WISDINC ^4.r:*: M^ I WIND. KG Fig. 8 CHCKi COiL Fig. 9 magnetic field collapses, causing a high voltage surge. This voltage surge is the force that "strikes" the arc across the lamp. Fig. 8 shows the circuit for a single 40-watt, rapid-start lamp. Rapid-start lamps have continuously heated cathodes when the circuit is closed. They start automatically without tlie aid of a starter required by preheat (switch start) lamps. The heater windings shown in the circuit diagram are part of the ballast. They provide a current flow through each cathode at all times when the lamp is operating. This current heats the cathode, which causes electrons omission prior to starting, just as in the case of tlie switch-start (preheat lamp). The rapid-start ballast pro- vides enough open-circuit voltage across tlie lamp to make it start automatically, almost as soon as cathode emission begins. Rapid-start lamps will give good performance in luminaires and circuits designed for preheat (switch-start) lamps, while either glow-switch or thermal-switch starters will start rapid-start lamps in preheat (switch-start) circuits. The glow-switch type is recommended, since thermal-switch starters may cause early end discoloration of the rapid-start lamps. Preheat (switch-start) lamps should not be placed in rapid-start circuits. If this is done inadvertently, the lamps generally will not start. However should the lamps start, short life will result due to insufficient preheating of the cathodes. All instant-start lamps (both slimline and "instant start") have a specially designed cathode construction, known as triple coil winding. The triple coil con- struction not only holds a considerable amount of activating material firmly in position, but also permits a hot spot to develop quickly. This greatly reduces the 228 Bulletin 66a-American RailwayTE^gineeriiig Association^ Ed Q < O 5 t- Q N Cd H at ^ & S O' u u o: a: a. Q w t -» 2 :s:Rii?:R:RiR:j; :c :s I c^in 'epEad3 oa viewing sonditiocs. In area's where considerable amcmt of natural daylight is pfesect, appearance is as sho'sn. At rjght, where apprscisbb amounts of incandwccnt lighting car; also be seen warm white lamps appear whit^; cnoi white, slightly bl'iish. Where one oolo? cf liLspe ia used ezcluaiTely, lamps wiD apiKar white, due to adaptation. ** For overall effect on room "atmosphere" warm white is usually preferred at levels of illumination below about 20-foot candles. At higher leveb, either warm white or cool waite may be satiafaotory, bat the usual preference is for cooi white. 10.5 EVALUATION MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS 10.5.1 GENERAL Since tlie primary considerations in railway car lighting vary with tlie accom- modations and the task as described, evaluation measurements should be based on tasks or functions normally found in the area of railway passenger cars. In evaluating the lighting for any particular car the applicable combination of meas- urements will have to be employed. Manual Recommendations 231 The following general factors apply to any tests: 1. All extraneous light should be excluded. 2. The voltage should be held constant at the switchboard or the voltage meas- ured for each reading and the reading corrected for any \'oltage deviation from normal. 3. Fluorescent lamps should be burned 100 hours before tests are made. 4. Fluorescent systems should be lighted for at least one-half hour before any readings are taken. 5. When photo-electric cell type instruments are used, the car should be at a temperature above 60° F. and such instruments should have their cells exposed to the approximate levels of illumination to be measured for at least 15 min. prior to taking any readings. 6. When testing the illumination of a car, a careful record should be taken of the condition of the car and the method of making tlie test. Information should include the following: (a) Name and type of property. (b) Location when test is made. (c) Names of those conducting test. (d) Date. (e) Time of Day. ( 1 ) Daylight with shades drav\'n. (2) Night with shades drawn. (3) Night with shades up. Unshaded windows at night are black surfaces with very low re- flectance factors. Shades are usually of a much higher reflectance value. (f) Instruments used, date of last calibration, and whetlicr equipped witli color correction filter. (g) Identification of area tested. (h) Color and cleanliness of walls, ceiling, furniture and floors. (i) Type of lighting fixtures and record of which fixures were lighted. ( j ) Conditions of fixures. ( 1 ) New or old. (2) Type of reflector and condition. ( 3 ) Cleanliness. (k) Wattage and rated \oltage of lamps. (1) Color of lamps, if fluorescent. (m) \'oltage at switchboard. (n) Location where readings were taken. (o) Description of readings. (1) Horizontal or vertical plane, or 45° plane. (2) Distance above floor. Bill. 60U Advertisement 23^1 S..r.. Pacifi, I If •6-^'^ Discover how to get more ton miles of Service, while reducing track maintenance and increasing rail life, by using Speno Ballast Cleanit>g and Rail Grinding. THROUGHOUT THE CONTINENT Jolt A^k ttie/T^x&oiiTkat Uag/ Owtj ^pjmm SPENO RAIL SERVICES, Inc. An Affiliate of Trans Union Corporation Clark Street, Box 219, East Syracuse, New York. 13057 SPENO INTERNATIONAL, S.A. 22 Pare Chateau Banquet, Geneva, Switzerland (For Bail Grindrng Outjide the North America lEC-HOLDEN. LTD. 8180 Cote de Liesse Road Montreal, Canada H4T1G8 Advertisement 232-7 FOR HEAVYWEIGHT LOADS ALUMINUM TRACK CAR Model 5000 Part #140230-X ...for transporting loads up to 5000 lbs. D All Heavy-Duty Aluminum Construction D Platform Deck — Heavy Expand- able Aluminum 52)4" x 47" D Wheels — 8" Diameter Cast Aluminum — Fully Insulated n Bearings — Ball Pre-Greased and Sealed D Weight — 156 lbs. Complete. 78 lbs. per Section n Platform Height (above rail) — 8)4" D Two Preformed Handles for use on all sides SafBtran PORTABLE TRACK CARS and DOLLIES for transporting loads up to 5,000 lbs. FOR LIGHTWEIGHT LOADS ALUMINUM ONE MAN DOLLY Model 1000 Pan »140200-1CX ...for transporting loads up to 1000 lbs. O Weighs only 40 lbs. O Assembled and disassembled without tools O Insulated outrigger wtteel O Handle used at either end • CONTACT YOUR NEAREST SAFETRAN REPRESENTATIVE FOR COMPLETE DETAILS OR WRITE . . . Safetran Systems Corporation 7721 National Turnpike • Louisville. KY 4021 4 • (502)361-1691 232-8 Advertisement RTW PORTABLE RAIL GRINDERS. A model for every requirement. With over 65 years of grinder experience, RTW has developed the nnost complete line of versatile, portable grinders available to the industry. Whatever your need, there's a RTW model especially designed for the job. E-72 (shown above), a flex-shaft power plant with a variety of attachments for multipurpose use. ■ E-1 (shown below), a lightweight flex-shaft grinder available with straight and cup-wheel hand piece. P-6-L, for high-speed precision grinding of frogs and rail joints. • P-16 D.S.P., a heavy duty unit designed for removing overflow metal from all types stock rails and switch points. • JG-970, dual head, cross grinder for high- production rail slotting. • X-60, a single head cross grinder • P-45-A, cup-wheel surface grinder for reforming welded rail ends. Write for detailed specification sheets on these and other high-performance equipment by RTW. Other RTW Maintenance Equipment Grinders (many additional models not listed above) Tie Handlers • Anchor Cribbers RPf RAILWAY TRACK-WORK CO. 2560 East Tioga St.. Philadelphia. Pa. 19134 Agents: Chicago — ESCO Equipment Service Co.* Houston -Service Equipment & Supply Company Los Angeles— Simkms Company • Louisville— T F Going • St Louis— R E Bell Co S Plainfield. N J —Eastern Railroad Equipment Corp. • Canada: Montreal -Woodmgs-Canada Ltd Export: American Equipment Co . Boca Raton. Florida Advertisement 232-9 Repair at 10% of replacement cost! The structural cracks in this bridge are being "welded" with epoxy. Osmose epoxy injec- tion restores structural integrity without service interruptions at a fraction of replacement cost. The proven OSMOSE method: • ANALYSIS • CLEANING • SEALING • CONTROLLED PRESSURE INJECTION • DETAILED INSPECTION REPORTS RAILROAD DIVISION 4546 Tompkins Drive Madison, Wis. 53716 232-10 Advertisement CLEARANCES RAILWAY LINE CLEARANCES' Presents vertical and horizontal clearances, and weight limita- tions for more than 250 railroads of North America. Also selected maps, instructions, and A.A.R. diagrams. Published annually in June with interim change circulars. Subscription $8 ($5 to reg- istrant companies). N.Y. residents add sales tax. EQUIPMENT THE OFFICIAL RAILWAY EQUIPMENT REGISTER® Describes by reporting marks and series numbers freight cars operated by railroads and private car companies of North Amer- ica, with inside and outside dimensions, cubic and pounds capacities, A.A.R. Mechanical Designations and Car Type Codes. Includes interchange points for railroads and home points for private car owners, with instructions regarding payments, move- ments and repairs. Separate section for railroad-owned heavy capacity and special type flat cars, and A.A.R. Car Service and Car Hire Rules, plate diagrams, and selected circulars and directives. Complete list of A.A.R. Reporting Marks and Uni- form Alpha Codes. Published quarterly. Subscription $45 ($34 to registrant companies). Single copy $15 ($10 to registrant companies). PUBLISHED BY NATIONAL RAILWAY PUBLICATION COMPANY 424 WEST 33rd ST. • NEW YORK, N.Y. 10001 • (212) 563-3319 Advertisement 232-11 LORAM'S ALL AMERICAN TRACK TEAM 24 STONE RAIL GRINDER Modern Maintenance of Way Equipment ...designed to do the job better, easier and at less cost —with your men or ours— in record time! ^^M <^^0yi CRIB SKELETONIZER TIE INSERTER SHOULDER BALLAST CLEANER I ~^ ^ I III »lE!^)Bl.^lSir'i^^i i\',''S Jr. r AUTOSLED :^. ...I •* 11* ■ »is;:^)Sijii0ir'(i8iw i',\ r MULTI-PURPOSE MACHINE _ 1 :^Wi ^ ill vi^gi.'ii.^^r'ijsisii ii 'i ^s^ AUTOTRACK WITH PLOW AND SLED THE WINNING TEAM FOR TRACK REHABILITATION PROGRAMS LORAM RAILWAY MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT FOR: • Shoulder Ballast Cleaning • Raising Track • Resurfacing • Reballasting • Replacing Ties • Undercutting • Ballast Cleaning • Crib Skeletonizing • Rail Grinding Single or Multiple track • Mainline or Yard tracks CONTRACT, SALE or LEASE ME MB e/i RjRI FOR FULL DETAILS. OR SHOWING OF OPERATING FILMS, WRITE OR CALL TODAY MAINTENANCE OF WAY, INC. 3900 Arrowhead Drive • Hamel, MN 55340 U.S.A. PHONE: (612) 478-6014 • TELEX: 29-0391; Cable, LORAM 232-12 Advertisement ^^^^m ^H ^^^^H ^^^^^E ■■ ^^^^^H ^^^^^E i^^B ^^^^^H ^^^^^E ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^E ■■i ^^^^^H ^^^^^E B0 l^^^^^l ^^^^^E 1^^ ^^^^^H ^^^^^E ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^E ^^B l^^^^^l ^^^^^^B IBB ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ■■ ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^5 §■■ ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^m ^■H ^^^^^H ^^^^^m IHi ^^^^H ^^^^^■i BMI ^^^^^H ^^^^^pi HHI l^^^^^l ^^^^^pi BHI l^^^^^l ^^^^^^H ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^5 BHI ^^^^^H ^^^^^■1 HH ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^■1 ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^1 HM ^^^^^H ^^^^^^j BH ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ■■1 ^^^^^H ^^^^^■1 ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^1 ^Hl ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ■■■ ^^^^^H ^^^^^E| ^^B ^^^^^H ^^^^^^S ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^1 I^B ^^^^^H ^^^■1 ^^ p^HH CkAfbunance ON THE JOB COUNTS ^■E BS ^^H ^^^^^^s I^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^5 ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^5 ^n ^^^^^H ^^^^^^5 BHB ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^1 ^^^^H ^^^^^^H ^■B ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ^^■i ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^E ^^ ^^^^H ^^^^^^5 ^IH ^^^^^H ^^^^^Bjl HH ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H ■■ ^^^^^H ^^^^^^H HH ^^^^^H ^^^^^^E ^1^ ^^^^^H ^^^^^K[ ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^E ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^E ^IH ^^^^^H ^^^^^^E ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^E ^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^Bj HH ^^^^^H ^^^^^E ^^H ^^^^H INSPECTION MOTOR CARS SECTION MOTOR CARS GANG MOTOR CARS PUSH CARS AND TRAILERS HY-RAIL EQUIPMENT BALLAST MAINTENANCE CARS WEED MOWERS TOW TRACTORS RAIL GRINDERS DERRICK CARS HYDRAULIC POWER TOOLS TRACK LINERS TRACK LINING LIGHT SPIKE DRIVERS TIE REMOVERS TIE HANDLERS RAIL LIFTERS TIE SHEARS TIE BED SCARIFIERS SPIKE PULLERS TIE PLUG INSERTERS TIE SPRAYERS TIE INSERTERS THESE UNITS ARE ACTUATED EITHER COMPLETELY OR PARTIALLY BY HYDRAULIC POWER FAIRMONT RAILWAY MOTORS, INC., FAIRMONT, MINNESOTA 56031 PART 2 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 233 Kill. 6U0 Report of Committee 9 — Highways C, A. Chrisilnsem, Chairman L. T. Cerny, Vice Chairman G. U. Mentjes, Secretary J. E. Spangler J. R. Summers P. A. Shuster H. L. Michael C. Shoemaker R. A. Mather T. P. Cunningham C. W. Smith R. E. Skinner J. L. Whitmeyer P. J. McCuE R. C. Aldrich W. W. Allen H. J. Barnes J. M. Bates J. P. BOLLING W. B. Calder A. L. Carpenter J. W. Cruikshank F. Daugherty R. A. Downey L. L. George H. D. Hahn C. I. Hartsell (E) W. J. Hedley (E) P. H. Himebaugh H. E. Hurst D. P. Insana P. G. Jefferis, Jr. M. D. Kenyon B. J. D. Kersey A. O. Kruse F. J. KULL R. V. LOFTUS R. F. MacDonald R. J. Massey G. E. Masters J. C. Miller H. G. Morgan (E) G. S. MUNRO G. R. NiCHELSON, Jr. R. D. Pamperl R. H. Patterson W. C. PiNSCHMIDT (E) J. E. Reynolds H. A. Richards F. E. Rosenkranz P. L. Sehnert L. R. Snyder M. R. Sproles D. D. Thomas D. Veitch W. E. Webster H. J. WiLKINS H. L. WOLTMAN C. H. WORBOYS Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: A. Recommendations for Further Study and Research. Progress report submitted as information page 236 B. Revision of Manual. Progress report submitted as information pitge 237 1. Grade Crossing Inventory and Accident Rei^ort Forms, Records and Practices. Final report, submitted as information page 237 2. Merits and Economics of Types of Grade Crossing Surfaces. Information being gathered on various types of crossing surfaces for a report next year. 3. Summary Reporting of Significant Publications on Grade Crossing Safety. Summarized reports finnished as information page 238 235 236 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 4. Evaluation of Developments in Passive and Non-Train-Actuated Grade Crossing Warnings. No report for past year's activity. 5. Study of Motor Vehicle Codes and Drivers' Licensing Practices. Progress report submitted as information page 248 6. Air Rights for Highways 0\er Railroad Property. No report for past year's activity. 7. Evaluation of Developments in Train-Actuated Grade Crossing Warn- ings, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with Communication and Signal Section, AAR. No report for past year's activity. 8. Imestigate Uses and Types of Rumble Strips and Their Adaptability for Approaches to Highway-Railway Grade Crossings. Progress report submitted as information page 248 9. Study of Public Pedestrian Crossings. Final report submitted as information page 249 10. Summary Reporting of Administration of State Crossing Safety Pro- grams. Progress report submitted as information page 250 The Committee on Highways, C. A. Christensen, Chairman. Report on Assignment A Recommendations For Further Study and Research L. T. Cerny (chairman, subcommittee), C. A. Christensen, T. P. Cunningham, P. J. McCuE, R. A. Mather, H. L. Michael, Clifford Shoemaker, P. A. Shuster, R. E. Skinner, C. W. Smith, J. E. Spangler, J. R. Summers, J. L. Whitmeyer. No new subjects are recommended for study at tliis time, but the possibility of forming subcommittes to handle reporting of the subject of state rail planning and the subject of crossing closings is under discussion. Grade crossings are frequently the reason for speed restrictions placed through towns; hence, tire latter subject could involve plans for closing some crossings and improving others to reduce hazards and ease speed restrictions, thus reducing time the road crossing is blocked. Highways 237 Report on Assignment B Revision of Manual J. E. Spangler (chairman, subcommiUee), J. M. Bates, C. A. Christensen, L. T. Cerny, J. W. Cruikshank, F. Daugherty, H. D. Hahn, C. I. Hartsell, D. P. Insana, p. G. Jefferis, R. V. Loftus, R. F. MacDonald, R. J. Massey, G. U. Mentjes, J. C. Miller, G. S. Munro, G. Rex Nichelson, R. E. Skinner, David Veitch, W. E. Webster, C. H. Worboys. During the past year tlie subcommittee has given further consideration to revisions in those portions of the Miscellaneous Part of Chapter 9 of the Manual covered in pages 9-M-2 through 9-M-9. Determination was made to substitute tlie AAR Crossing Inventory Form for the Highway Grade Crossing Record on pages 9-M-6 and 9-M-7. It was further detennined that changes in pages showing type of barriers at closed crossings, acci- dent report, and crossing delays report should await finalization of the crossing inventory form, when all of the subjects will be handled at one time. It is hoped that work on these miscellaneous subjects can be completed during the next year. Report on Assignment 1 Grade Crossing Inventory and Accident Report Forms, Records and Practices J. R. Summers (chairman, subcommittee), W. W. Allen, J. M. Bates, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christensen, J. W. Cruikshank, H. D. Hahn, D. P. Insana, P. G. Jefferis, Jr., M. D. Kenyon, A. O. Kruse, P. J. McCue, R. J. Massey, J. C. Miller, R. D. Pamperl, J. E. Reynolds, H. A. Richards, P. A. Shuster, C. Shoemaker, L. R. Snyder, M. R. Sproles, J. L. Whitmeyer. The subcommittee assignment was to make recommendations in two areas: 1. What information or material from the National Grade Crossing Inventory should be incorporated in the AREA Manual? 2. What type of sign should the railroads recommend as a permanent sign in accordance with provisions outlined in the DOT update manual, dated January 1976? As a result of our study, the subcommittee recommended that the present accident form as shown on pages 9-M-4 and 9-M-5 be deleted from the AREA Manual and that the Federal Railroad Administration Highway Grade Crossing Incident Report Form, as it appears in tlie FRA Guide for preparing accidents/ incident reports be placed in our Manual. It was further recommended that the present highway grade crossing record that appears on pages 9-M-6 and 9-M-7 be deleted from the Manual and that the DOT-AAR Crossing Inventory update form be placed in our Manual. These recommendations were adopted by the full committee. 238 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association The subcommittee considered the requirements and procedures for permanently displa\ing the Railroad-Highway Crossing Number as covered in tlie National Railroad-Highway Crossing Inventory Update ^hlmlal by DOT dated January 1976. It was generally agreed that the railroad industry should come to some consensus on the paragraph on fabrication of the sign. It is believed a uniform type of sign throughout the country would be in the best interest of the railroad industry and tlie public. It should be the type of sign that can easily be furnished by others, as many States may adopt the number into their system of accident surveillance and will want to fabricate tlie signs in dieir regular sign shops. If tlie railroad industry were to furnish the sign, it would be best to use the same general specifications, as tlie sign would be cheaper to furnish when large quantities are produced. After considering the various materials such as metal, plastic or other suitable types, along with stencil painting, it was the recommendation of this subcommittee that light-gauge aluminum with letters and numbers embossed be recommended as the permanent sign. It was reconunended the sign not be painted so as to be less attractive to vandals. It was furdier recommended tlie sign continue to show the railroad initials aldiough tliis is not required in the manual. The above type of sign can be thought of as an unpainted "license plate" type. Some States have indicated the blanks used for motorcycle tags could be used to produce this type of sign. The cost of this type of sign had a wide range of from less than $1.00 to over $3.00, depending on whether they are made by a govern- mental agency or purcliased in small quantities from a manufacturer. In any case, die average cost should not be much over $2.00. This was considered to be a reasonable cost with more concern being expressed over the cost of labor to install. It was felt the labor cost should be of major concern when considering any type cost-shared \vidi the States. This is a final report submitted as infonnation. Report on Assignment 3 Summary Reporting of Significant Publications on Grade Crossing Safety H. L. Michael (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. George (vice chairman, subcom- mittee), W. W. Allen, J. P. Bollhsg, A. L. Carpenter, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christensen, M. D. Kenyon, A. O. Kruse, R. V. Loftus, R. A. Mather, P, J. McCue, G. R. Nichelson, R. D. Pamperl, R. H. Patterson, H. A. Richards, R. E. Skinner, C. W. Smith, J. R. Summers, David Veitch, H. J. WiLKiNs, H. L. Woltman. INTRODUCTION The subcommittee assignment continues to be the reporting in summary format of significant publications or developments in grade crossing safety. This year ten publications and progress on several significant research projects in grade crossing protection are reported. Structural and Geometric Characteristics of Highway-Railroad Grade Crossings, by Thomas M. Newton, Robert L. Lytton and Robert M. Olson, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, Research Report No. 164—1, August 1975. Highways 239 This report is the fiist in a series deahng with structural and geometric char- acteristics of highway-railroad grade crossings. The seven chapters cover distribution and geometric characteristics of crossings, appraisals of some existing crossings, surface and subsurface drainage systems, crossing evaluations, computer simulation of dynamic loads at crossings, subgrade stabilization fabrics, and structural details. In the study of grade crossing distribution it was revealed that approximately 60 percent of crossings in Texas are on the Farm-to-Market system, with approxi- mately 15 percent on the state numbered system, 15 percent on the U.S. numbered system, and the remaining 10 percent distributed over loops, spurs, and other road types. This is a significant observation because the geometric standards for FM highways, U.S. highways, etc., are decidedly different. Geometrically, it was observed tliat the railroad is frequently higher than the roadway, requiring vertical curves at the approaches. In addition, a highway is frequently located parallel and adjacent to the railroad, requiring a highway inter- section near the grade crossing. Horizontal alignment often includes curves with radii less than 1000 ft. Various crossing surfaces were investigated and ways and means to improve current techniques were studied. Crossing surfaces include timber, bituminous, concrete slab, and metal sections. Overall comparisons indicated that crossings of a more permanent type surface appear warranted at many locations. Altliough initial costs are high, longer life and smoother, safer rides are offsetting factors. Adequate drainage must be provided to eliminate or minimize intrusion of surface water into the crossing which permits excessive saturation and flooding of the pavement structural section. Evidence of tliis is seen by pavement failure ad- jacent to tlie crossing. Subsurface drainage was observed at several sites, and this area will be further investigated in the research effort. A survey of crossings was made to provide an estimate of general conditions at a site. Composite indices were developed to indicate when a crossing is a candi- date for replacement. The indices represent the weighted sum of visual ratings of the highway, the railroad, and drainage conditions. Roughness indices were also developed for crossings based on the Mays Ride Meter measurements. Foundation conditions were studied and revealed that moisture content indi- cates lower shear strength and lower suction levels which could cause large deforma- tion, pumping, and ultimately failure of the foundation. Sources of information were examined in an effort to define dynamic behavior of track and highway. In addition, the DYMOL computer program was used to compute dynamic loads at grade crossings. It was determined that three geometric features in a crossing are important from a dynamic load standpoint: 1) ramp rise, 2) step difference between pavement and crossings, and 3) rail height above the surface. Ramp rise was the most important factor. The dynamic forces were very large on top of the first rail and on the pavement approximately 5 to 6 ft beyond the crossing. Certain geometric features in a grade crossing can cause a dynamic wheel load to become 2 to 3 times as large as its static weight. Design life may be reduced to as low as 70 percent of its design value. The study showed that dynamic loads and their influence are very important for the design of a crossing and its approaching pavements. Several subgrade stabilization fabrics were also appraised in this study. A poly- propylene with nylon fiber, a polypropylene fibrous .sheet, a nonwoven polyester fabric, and a nonwoven polypropylene fabric were included. Further investigations of their merit must be conducted before reporting rcconnnendations. 240 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Finally, structural details for extending crossing life and improving rideability were suggested for further consideration. Some of these include the use of con- tinuous tie plates, rubber cushions and flangeway inserts, and concrete approach slab. Several procedures have been suggested which could be employed immediately at sites which are in good repair, but which are expected to deteriorate rapidly. These relatively Inexpensive maintenance functions which could extend crossing life several years and enhance rideability include: ( 1 ) Improve ground contours by grading to permit surface drainage away from the roadway and track structure. At many locations outfall to existing borrow ditches could be improved by hand labor. One or two man-days would be required to produce shallow swales tlirough waste materials which block outfall from these crossings. At other sites a small backhoe might be required. (2) Install bituminous, timber, or rubber materials in flangeway, and on the outside of the running rail to prevent intrusion of surface water to elimi- nate pumping. This procedure used in conjunction with grading discussed previously can be readily accomplished at minimal cost. (3) Provide underground drainage by constructing inlets near the crossing. Outfall through minimum diameter pipe to bonow ditches would be required where surface contouring cannot be accomplished. These operations can be performed without removing roadway or track structure. (4) At some locations additional subsurface drainage could be provided by cutting a trench across the highway and installing subsurface drainage systems. This improvement should reduce flexible pavement deterioration, and can be accomplished without disrupting rail tiaffic. Passive Control of Rail-Highway Grade Crossings, by I. N. Dommasch, R. L. Hollinger and E. F. Reilly, Bureau of Operations Research, Division of Research ancJ Development, New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton, New Jersey 08625, December 1975. Tlie first phase of this project concentrated on the development of field tech- niques to measure the eff^ectiveness of passive designs. Four measures were formulated and subsequently tested in three pilot studies, conducted at two sites. The following conclusions were niade from these studies: (a) The standard deviation of the spot speed on the crossing itself was found to be very high in relation to the variation of speed on the approach. Spot speeds at the crossing were one measure used in the studies. (b) Head movements of motorists, looking down the tracks, were found to be virtually nonexistent. This measure was not used. (c) Brake light applications on the approach to the rail crossing did not exceed 7.6 percent of the approach volume, even though over 60 percent of the motorists claimed to slow down during the pilot studies. This measure was used, although specific conclusions were not made. (d) Motorist interviews were believed to be tlie most effective method of determining the effect of experimental designs. This measure was used in the study. After measures of effectiveness were developed, attention was focused on de- veloping experimental signing. Two combinations of experimental advance signs Highways 241 and crossbucks were chosen to evaluate. The choice was made by viewing scaled models of various designs under daytime and nighttime conditions and picking the signs which appeared best under those conditions. From the scale tests, two combi- nations of advance warning sign/crossing sign were chosen. One combination was tested with yellow Scotchlite and the other with brilliant yellow-green Scotchlite backgrounds. The second phase of this project involved selection of statistical tests, site selection, and conducting the "before" study using evaluation techniques developed in the first phase. Ten sites were selected for study and existing passive control at these sites was evaluated. Three statistical tests were used on various questionnaire responses and the spot speed standard deviation, namely, the Chi-square, the Z-Test for proportions, and the F-test. Results of the "before" questionnaire study showed that from 2 percent to 22 percent of the drivers were not aware of the railroad crossing. However, a high proportion of drivers who were aware of the crossing stated that the tracks made them aware. This may indicate tliat many drivers were only aware of the crossing as they crossed the tracks. The third phase of tliis project focused on the "after" study and the comparison and analysis of "before" and "after" data. Of particular interest in this phase was the effectiveness of the control changes in regard to motorist awareness of the crossing. It was found that motorist awareness increased in the after studies at five out of six sites Vi'here experimental control was implemented. Awareness also increased at three out of four sites where control was merely upgraded. The most significant aspect of change in motorist response was found at the experimental sites. At all experimental sites, a substantial increase in "signing" as a reason for awareness was found in the after studies. Five out of six of these increases were statistically sig- nificant at a 95 percent confidence level. The increase in "signing" is considered a favorable response to the experimental signing, because it indicates that the ap- proaching motorist was aware of the tracks before he crossed them. Standard deviations in spot speeds decreased at all but one crossing in the after studies. This is considered a favorable response since it indicates a more unifonn motorist reaction at tlie crossing. Average spot speeds in the after study increased at all but one site. At the same time, the percent of motorists observed to apply brakes increased at all sites for which data were available. Brake light data were not available for three upgraded sites. When combined, this information implies that fewer motorists are slowing at the crossings in the after studies, but that those who do are slowing in a more pronounced manner. This is backed up by a decrease, at all experimental sites, in the number of motorists responding that they slowed. Invesfigafions of Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Accident Data, by Janet Coleman and Gerald R. Stewart, Office of Research, Federal Highway Administration, Department of Transportation, April 1976. This research resulted in improved techniques for predicting railroad-highway grade crossing accidents and their severity. Although many variables could not be investigated in the study, the capability for their subsequent consideration has been established. A framework for using accident prediction eciuations has been outlined Bui. 600 242 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association and may be expanded as additional factors relating to safety improvements are investigated. There are still many unanswered questions regarding the occurrence of acci- dents and their severity at grade crossings. In this study, the ratio of the number of accidents for a group of crossings to the number of crossing years of exposure has evolved as a measure of the accident potential for a group of crossings. Future studies based on the Nationwide DOT-AAR grade crossing inventory and the revised FRA accident information will be helpful in establishing many other useful relationships between crossing characteristics and accident potential. An Observational Study of Driver Behavior at Signalized Railroad Crossings, by G. J. S. Wilde, L. J. Cake, and M. B. McCarthy, Canadian Institute of Guided Ground Transport, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Report No. 75—16, February 1976. Among the man>^ studies on railroad le\'el crossing accidents and their preven- tion, few ha\'e analyzed the causation of these accidents on the basis of the driver beha\ior tliat normally occurs at these locations. To explore the safety implications of normal dri\'er approach beha\'ior, the present study, conducted under die joint sponsorship of the Canadian Transport Commission, Canadian National Railways and Canadian Pacific Limited, involved the measurement and assessment of variables relating to what habitually occurs on, and in close proximity to, railroad crossings. The data collected in the study showed very marked diflFerences between drivers in temis of mo\ ing speeds, speed changes, speed change reversals, and head move- ments. It was found that variability increased considerably as drivers came closer to the crossing and reached its maximum at the crossing itself. This lack of uniformity in driver behavior indicates a high le\el of decisional uncertainty with respect to the correct response to the crossing, and is undoubtedly a major cause of crossing accidents. The consequences of tiiis range of interpretations is evidenced also by the high frequency of observed critical incidents — flashing lights and descending gates are disobeyed by a considerable proportion of dri\ers. This decisional uncertainty is largely attributable to the high variability found with respect to warning signal activity and train activity. If one considers that some 10 percent of the alanns are false (meaning that no train arrives at all), and that in many odier cases the warning period is unduly long, the high rate of critical incidents is not surprising. It would seem logical to assume tliat the greater the chances of proceeding through the crossing with impunity despite the activated signals, the larger the percentage of drivers who will disobey the signals. In the view of die authors, there is anodier source of behavioral heterogeneity which is due to the nature of the crossing pavement characteristics. At present, crossings differ markedly in smoothness. This would seem to create speed variability both within and between crossings. Drivers with different degrees of familiarity widi the crossing, and vehicles of different weights and suspension characteristics, will choose different speeds accordingly. Hence, crossing smoodiness should be made constant from crossing to crossing. As a rough surface constitutes a greater obstacle for some vehicles than others, equally smooth crossings are preferable to equally rough crossings. On the basis of the study, it is apparent that safety can be promoted through minor modifications in the existing warning system. The necessary objective is to create greater uniformity in driver behavior. The results of the study indicate several requirements that should be fulfilled by a warning system in order to elicit road user behavior diat optimally resi^onds to tiie needs of safety. Highways 243 Two of these requirements are: (1) The warning sijstems should reduce decisional uncertainty to a minimum. Decisional uncertainty leads to inconsistent behavior botli within and between drivers. It should also be recognized that decisions take more time to be made when uncertainty is high — time that is precious in view of the imminent approach of the train. Thus, less time is left to execute tlie appropriate action on the vehicle. Furthermore, a decision is made faster as the number of possible options is smaller, two options only being optimal. (2) The message conveyed by the warning signal should be credible. The signals should announce events in a maximally predictable manner. False alarms and unnecessarily long warning times undermine the realization that signals are inexorable. These events cause the apparent paradox that the origin of train-vehicle collisions is created in situations in which such colhsions are unlikely to occur. The forgiveness of the present system of signal control produces conditions in which drivers normally get away with improper behavior at railroad crossings, except in tlie few cases when they do not. Signals should not be allowed to cry wolf. Acting on the requirement that the warning system reduces decisional uncer- tainty while enliancing credibility, the obvious solution appears to be to have tlie signal indicate to the driver not what he should do before arriving at the location of the signal, but what he should do next, that is, after passing the signal location. A signalization system that appears to satisfy these requirements is proposed. It is a sequential system that provides for two spatially separated warning signals, the first one of which is activated some time before the second. Activation of botli warning signals precedes tlie arrival of the train by constant time intervals for all crossings and for all train speeds. As compared to the warning system presently in existence, one major modifi- cation is the addition of a Lead Warning Signal on each side of the crossing, located some distance ahead of the Existing Warning Signal at the crossing. The Effectiveness of Automatic Warning Devices in Reducing Accidents at Grade Cross- ings in California, by William R. Schulte, California Public Utilities Commission, San Fran- cisco, California, August 1, 1975. In the last 17 years California has experienced over 17,000 vehicle- train acci- dents that have claimed over 550 lives. The California Public Utilities Commission and the California State Legislature have attempted to reduce die continuing human and economic loss by promoting the installation of flashing light signals and auto- matic crossing gates. This study is intended to gauge the eftect of California's automatic warning device program on the frequency of vehicle-train accidents in general and to examine .specific crossing locations to appraise the capabilities of automatic warning devices in reducing average vehicle-train accident and severity rates. To determine the effectiveness of automatic warning devices under varying conditions tlie before- and-after accident liistorics of 1,552 grade crossings where automatic devices were installed between 1960 and 1970 were compared on a crossing-year basis segregated by type of warning device liefore and after, rural vs. urban conditions, and the number of raihoad tracks. While some limitations and adxcrse side ellects do exist, the results indicate that the installation of automatic gates can be expected, on the average, to reduce 244 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association vehicle-train accidents by approximately 70% per crossing-year and related deaths and injuries per year by 89% and 83%, respectively. In addition, it would appear that automatic gates eliminate many of those accidents representing the greatest po- tential severity, since deaths per accident were reduced 64%, injuries per accident by 43%, and deaths per injury by 36%. To point out one of the possible uses of tlie vehicle-train accident and severity experience, the results are combined with average installation, maintenance, and operation cost figures for flashing lights and automatic gates in a brief economic analysis aimed at determining tlie most cost effective alternative. Toward More Effective Groc/e-Cross/ng Flashing Lights, by John B. Hopkins and F. Ross Holmstrom, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C, TRB Record 562, pp. 1—14, 1976. Pairs of alternately flashing, red incandescent lamps have been the primary motorist warning device at grade crossings for several decades. Although significant evolutionary impro\'ements have occurred, basic constraints (on power consumption, in particular) have limited the total effectiveness normally found. Tightly focused beams, which are necessary to obtain high intensity at low power levels, make per- ceived brightness highly dependent on both motorist position and precise alignment, which is difficult and expensive to maintain. Examination of appropriate literature and existing standards has made possible delineation of functional specifications and desirable characteristics of motorist warnings for use at grade crossings. Significant impro\"ement is possible thiough the use of xenon flash lamps in standard crossing mountings, in place of or in concert \\'ith conventional lights. The short-duration flash of the xenon unit appears to ofl^er a warning of markedly greater effectiveness. This result is obtainable with little deviation from the basic framework of applicable standards, motorist familiarity, and conventional equipment. This paper includes discussion of optimal specifications, relevant technology, compatibility with existing systems, and field tests. Description and Application of a Comprehensive Planning Procedure for Urban Rail- road Relocation, by A. E. Moon, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C, TRB Record 562, pp. 15-27, 1976. Relocation for consolidation of railroad facilities in urban areas offers a potential for achieving significant benefits from eliminating delays and accidents at grade crossings, environmental degradation near the railroad, and social and economic barriers and from impro\ing the efficiency of railroad operations. However, the impacts of railroad relocation are distributed widely throughout a community, and any real impro\ement in tlie community and railroad system will require careful and comprehensive planning. This paper describes a planning procedure and guide- book developed to help community leaders organize and manage the planning process and to provide a consistent framework for developing and analyzing the costs and benefits of alternatives. The project team found that the analytical pro- cedure was effective when used at the proper level of detail to support the decisions to be made as a result of the current study. They also found that the exaluation of projects with significant nonmonetary benefits is difficult, despite the organization of the benefits that can be valued or measured. This paper illustrates the application of these procedures and the guidebook to the problem of railroad relocation in the city of Lafayette, Indiana. Highways 245 Driver Performance in Countermeasure Development at Railroad-High vt^ay Grade Cross- ings, by J. H. Sanders, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C, TRB Record 562, pp. 28-37, 1976. This paper summarizes the findings of a field demonstration study to determine the requirements for grade-crossing-accident countermeasures. Information was ob- tained on driver behavior, knowledge, and attitudes by using the trafiBc-evaluator system, time-lapse photography, and questionnaires. A review of the safety-related factors brought to the grade-crossing situation by the driver was also made. The review included licensing and education, safety programs, attitudes and habits, and driver-vehicle capabilities and limitations. An extensive analysis of these data suggested countenneasure concepts and determined target populations for counter- measure intervention. Behavior measures were isolated that may be used to discrimi- nate among candidate countermeasures when they are applied in the field-evaluation program presented in the study. Selective Crossing Closures — A Neglected Option in Crossing Safely Programs, by David J. Astle, Oregon Public Utilities Commission, a paper presented at a Traffic Confer- ence, 1976. The cost of protective devices, or warning devices, as the railroads now call them, is steadily accelerating upward. Flashing lights, supplemented with automatic gates, are generally considered the best form of automatic crossing signalization. The average installation of these devices now runs between $40,000 and $50,000. With these figures in mind, it is easier to visualize the importance of a well- founded, selective crossing closure program. One major objective of such a program is to maximize the safety benefits derived from each dollar spent for new automatic crossing signalization devices. It makes little sense to spend diat kind of money to signalize a grade crossing and leave another grade crossing unsignalized two or three blocks down the track. Many grade crossings, especially in urban areas, are holdovers from horse-and-buggy days and are no longer needed for motor vehicle use. If at all possible, one or more closely adjacent crossings should be closed when a crossing is provided with automatic protection. It's difficult to set down specific guidelines for closure similar to the specific warrants that are established for traffic signalization. There are, of course, several important factors that must be considered in each closure case, and these will be discussed briefly. Before doing so, the major criterion for closure should be empha- sized, and tliat is, "Is the crossing needed?" Proof that a new crossing is required by public convenience and necessity before granting authority to construct it is required. In a crossing closure case, the real need for each crossing being studied is considered. In looking at the need for a crossing as it relates to a possible closure, it is necessary to make a thorough study of the service provided to the public by the crossing, including the following specific considerations: ( 1 ) The general area sei-ved by the crossing and the eflect of closure on each business, residence, school and hospital located in the area involved. (2) The role of the street in the traffic pattern of the area, including any changes in that pattern which would result from the closure of one or more of the crossings being studied. A careful study of the traffic flows in the affected area must be made, especially as they relate to vehicle crossings over the railroad, including a count of the traffic, and a break- down by vehicle type and time of use. As a footnote at this point, closing 246 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association a crossing to pedestrians is seldom considered. There have been few acci- dent problems involving pedestrians at crossings and, in most cases, it is safe to leaxe a crossing open to pedestrian traffic while closing it to motor vehicle traffic. (3) The third consideration involves tlie growth trends in tlie area affected by the crossing and future plans for development, inclucUng careful study of any master plan and zoning map. (4) The fourth, and a \'ery important consideration, is the availability of alternate routes, and the additional circuity that would be involved using tliose routes, if the crossing being studied were closed. Here, an analysis of trips made over the crossing is important. Origin and destination infor- mation is very useful. (5) Fifth is a study of the train use of the crossing, the number of through movements, number of switching movements, and tlie total blockage time. (6) Sixth is to make a safety cost/benefit analysis that compares the cost of protecting the crossing with automatic devices and maintaining those de- vices against the estimated cost of accidents, including injuries and fatalities which would be expected to occur at the crossing over a given period of time. (7) Seventh, and very important, is determining the role the crossing plays in ser\'ing emergency needs, such as fire, police and ambulance use. Here one should learn as much as possible about tlie routes used for each type of emergency service. Any serious problem uncovered in this analysis could eliminate the crossing in question as a candidate for closure. Federal Aid Safety Program (FASP) Guidelines to Cities and Counties, Washington State Highway Commission, Oiympia, Washington 98504, Revised, 1976. Implementation and operation of the Federal-aid Safety Program under the 1973 Federal Highway Safety Act for Section 203, Rail-Highway Crossings; Section 205, Pavement Marking Demonstration Program; Section 209, High Hazard Loca- tions; Section 210, Road Side Obstacles; and Section 230, Safer Roads Demonstration Program have required the adoption of certain basic policies and procedures. These policies and procedures are referred to as "FASP Guidelines" and are presented. The organization of each "Guideline" should be noted. First, the basic policy established is presented and identified as "FASP Rule." These rules have been adopted from Federal Regulations and are designed to provide the easiest and most efficient procedure for providing Federal funding for projects. Second, in most cases, "OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS" are presented to further explain and implement the policy established in tlie "FASP RULE." Ad- herence to these instructions will promote smooth operation of the Federal-aid safety program. The Guidelines establish minimum requirements for some conditions which are greater than minimiuns required previously. A simple agreement form for "FASP" projects is also included as are several drawings showing minimum clearance distances. RESEARCH IN PROGRESS The Federal Higliway Administration under its Federal Coordinated Program (FCP) of research has one titled "Aids to Sur\'eillancc and Control." The objective Highways 247 of the project is to improve warrants for various types of protection and warning devices and to determine priorities for improvements, inchiding relocations, at rail-highway grade crossings. A combination of studies are in progress to achieve die objective. These include an FHWA staff study to develop accident and severity prediction equations to improve warrants for crossing improvements, the passive grade crossing Pooled Fund project which has been in progress for several years, continuation of research on structural and geometric design of crossings, and a study to determine the needs of motorists at crossings with active warning devices. Research on analysis of crossing surface materials, crossing illumination, active advance warning signs and constant warning times is anticipated for FY 77. One result of the FCP research is expected to be handbook and a training course on the best current practices in the areas of design, construction, operation and maintenance of grade crossings. Implementation of the Permanent Numbering System at Highway-Rail Crossings was furthered during the past year with the development of procedures for perma- nently displaying the railroad-highway crossing number. All crossings have been numbered and control and records centralized in the National Railroad-Highway Crossing Infomiation Center, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D. C. In March 1976 the Federal Highway Administration approved the use of Sec. 402 Highway Safety funds for maintenance of the rail-highway crossing numbering system. A primary function of the numbering system is to serve as an accident location reference and as a link between accident reports and inventory data. Another significant development in the highway-railroad grade crossing area is die preparation of a Part VIII, titled "Traffic Contiol Systems for Railroad- Highway Grade Crossings," of the "Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices." This Manual, which is a Federal Safety Standard, and Part VIII are the product of cooperation between the National Advisory Committee on Uniform Traffic Control Devices and the Federal Highway Administrator. Part VIII is planned for final approval by January 1977. It will include updated standards for all traffic control devices used at railroad-highway grade crossings in this one publication. CONCLUSION Research in railroad-highway grade crossing safety has been considerable tlie past several years and this emphasis will continue for several more. A number of significant publications in the area will undoubtedly become available during 1976 and 1977. It is therefore recommended that the assignment of this subcommittee be continued \\'ithout change. 248 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 5 Study of Motor Vehicle Codes and Drivers' Licensing Practices R. A. Mather (chairman, subcommittee), A. O. Kruse (vice cJiairman, subcommittee), H. J. Barnes, J. M. Bates, J. P. Bolling, W. B. Calder, A. L. Carpenter, L. T. Cerny, C. a. Christensen, M. D. Kenyon, G. U. Mentjes, J. E. Reynolds, P. L. Sehnert, P. A. Shuster, J. R. Summers, H. J. Wilkins, H. L. WOLTMAN. Your committee has written to all of the States requesting a copy of then- current dri\'ers' manual and all have responded. The committee is reviewing each of them and extracting those portions that deal with railroad crossings for the motoring public. It is planned to compare this material with that contained in the manuals of six years ago. This is a progress report submitted as information witli the recommendation that the subject be continued. Report on Assignment 8 Investigate Uses and Types of Rumble Strips and Their Adaptability for Approaches to Highway-Railway Grade Crossings R. E. Skinner (chairman, subcommittee), W. B. Calder, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christensen, R. A. Downey, L. L. George, C. I. Hartsell, J. C. Miller, G. S. MuNRO, R. H. Patterson, F. E. Rosenkranz, P. L. Sehnert, P. A. Shuster, W. E. Webster, H. J. Wilkins, C. H. Worboys. At the last session of the Iowa Legislature, an amendment to a statute was passed that authorizes the State to install rumble strips in highways in advance of railroad grade crossings. The statute had previously given the State discretionary authority to install stop signs at grade crossings. The State has suggested that the railroads in the State submit a proposal for a demonstration project, contemplating installation by tlie State of rumble strips and stop signs at 10 or 12 crossings to pennit tlie various types of installation to be studied to determine their effectiveness. Your committee expects to follow the progress of the demonstration. This is a progress report submittted as information with the recommendation that the subject be continued. Highways 249 Report on Assignment 9 Study of Public Pedestrian Crossings J. L. WhitiMeyer {chuirman, subcommittee), W. W. Allen, W. B. Calder, A. L. Carpenter, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christensen, J. W. Cruikshank, T. P. Cun- ningham, F. Daugherty, H. D. Hahn, C. I. Hartsell, W. J. Hedley, D. P. Insana, R. F. MacDonald, R. J. Massey, G. U. Mentjes, J. C. Miller, J. E. Spangler, D. D. Thomas, D. Veitch, C. H. Worboys. Pedestrian grade crossings continue to assume increased attention from local jurisdictions and railroads. This type of crossing often results as a compromise following closure of a vehicular grade crossing by public authority. Wliile passive warning signs are normally used, more and more pedestrian crossings are being equipped with automatic warning devices consisting generally of a flashing light and bell. Recently, following a road closure, the Oregon Commis- sioner ordered a pedestrian crossing with two flashing light signals, each mounting two 12-in. red lights in xertical aspect on approximate 4-ft centers and augmented with a unique PEDESTRIANS ONLY sign. The signals operate the same as otlier crossing warning systems. At another location in Oregon, die same authority ordered tvvo crossing signs, each with one continuous flashing yellow light and PEDES- TRIANS ONLY sign; lamp operation is independent of train movements. Bicycle crossings are becoming increasingly evident as legislation provides funding for construction of new routes. Both warning signs and signals, similar to those used at otlier types of crossings, are used. At a new bicycle crossing in California, the Public Utilities Commission ordered two pedestrian signals installed (a single red flashing light, crossing sign and bell, see AREA Bulletin 655, page 268) each augmented with an automatic gate. As the bikeway approaches are fenced to the railroad right-of-way, the bicyclist is physically restricted from using the crossing upon the approach of a train. An interim report on "Bikeway Crossings of Railroad Tracks" was recently prepared by a committee with representatives from railroads and various local and state agencies. It deals with the following areas: 1. The need for separate alignment of bikeway crossings from vehicular crossings. 2. The recommended construction material, width and angle of crossings. 3. The need for dismount barriers, fencing and advance warning devices. 4. The need for signs and warning devices. 5. Resolution of construction and maintenance cost apportionment, the design and authorization by legal authority, consideration of illumination, and other miscellaneous items. The committee intends the report to serve only as a guideline and should not deter others from considering alternate solutions to ensure bicycle safety at tiiese crossings. The report is available through the Public Utilities Commission of the State of Cahfomia at San Francisco. This is a final report submitted as information. 250 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 10 Summary Reporting of Administration of State Crossing Safety Programs p. J. McCuE (chairman, subcommittee), W. W. Allen, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christ- ENSEN, L. L. George, W. J. Hedley, H. A. Richards, M. R. Sproles. Monthly reports were distributed during the course of the year summarizing state apportionments and obligations of Federal funds for grade safety improvement projects. As of June 30, 1976 the program status was as shown on attachment 1. In addition to the considerable balance of Federal funds remaining to be obli- gated from the 1973 Federal- Aid High\\'ay Act ( as shown on attachment 1 ) new funds were authorized in the 1976 Federal-Aid Highway Act for grade crossing safety improvements. S250 million were earmarked for crossing projects on Federal Aid routes and $150 million were earmarked for crossings on non-Federal-Aid routes. These funds are authorized for fiscal 1977 and 78 and must be obligated by the States by September 30, 1981. Apportionments of the new funds are shown on attachment 2. These funds were apportioned to the States on July 1, 1976. However, the amounts shown for crossing projects on non-Federal-Aid routes cannot be obligated imtil Congress appropriates the funds from the general treasury. The funds for crossing projects on Federal-Aid routes come from the highway trust fund and these amounts are now- available for obligation. The National Grade Crossing Inventory and Numbering Project was completed this year and a report was distributed summarizing results of the project; 219,000 public crossings and 183,000 private, grade-separated and pedestrian crossings were inventoried at an estimate cost of $4.4 million. The States are now using the inventory data to program Federal funds for crossing improvements. "Permanent" replacement of the temporary number tags installed during the inventory was a subject of continuous discussion dining the year. Federal Railroad Administration specifications for "permanent" number signs were distributed in late 1975. In the Spring of 1976, the Federal Highway Administration announced that highway safety funds could be used to purchase the "permanent" signs. All States are now being queried to determine their willingness to use Federal funds in the sign replacement program. This is a progress report submitted as information with die recommendation that the subject be continued. Highways 251 ATTACHMENT 1 STATUS OF FUNDS APPORTIONED FOR RAIL-HIGHWAY PROJECTS ON FEDERAL-AID SYSTEM UNDER HIGHWAY ACT OF 1973 (As of June 30. 1976) ToUl Unobli- Appor- Total gated State tioned Obligated Balance Alabama 2.792.030 Alaska 3.255,403 Arizona 1.880.651 Arkansas 1.915,888 California 12,600,887 Colorado 2.290.950 Connecticut 1.117.913 Delaware 713.541 Florida 4.491.487 Georgia 3.734.959 Hawaii 542.034 Idaho 1.257.985 Illinois 7.368.286 Indiana 3.682.171 Iowa 2.818,064 Kansas 2.578.411 Kentucky 2.482.643 Louisiana 2.624.746 Maine 1.045.259 Maryland 2.440,041 Massachusetts 3.273,214 Michigan 6,019.491 Minnesota 3.553.529 Mississippi 2.000,997 Missouri 3.954.458 Montana 1.823,297 Nebraska 1.962.787 Nevada 1.221.762 New Hampshire 715.811 New Jersey 4,079,757 New Mexico 1.595.532 New York U. 058.244 North Carolina 3,683,299 North Dakota 1,360.257 Ohio 6,810,912 Oklahoma 2.526.273 Oregon 2.054.729 Pennsylvania 7.456.260 Rhode Island 853,053 South Carolina 1,934.804 South Dakota 1,465.553 Tennessee 3.093.224 2.221,425 570,605 1,835,493 1.419.910 624.742 1.255,918 936,646 979,042 7.417.482 5.183.405 2.238.074 52.876 304,871 813,041 295,820 417,721 3,572.952 913.535 2.811.309 923.650 542.034 475.459 782.526 5,433,777 1.943.508 1.784,388 1.897.782 1.717.488 1.100,575 1.525.788 1.052,623 948.754 1.533,889 2.511,206 113,540 141,280 903.888 1.019.582 1.420,459 2,322,079 951,134 4,295,459 1.724.032 1,883.375 1.870.154 1.726.199 274.798 3,856.085 98.372 1.139.975 683,324 1,499,076 463.711 1.221.762 - 388.753 327.057 170.730 3.909.027 600.225 995.307 4.389.288 6.665,956 1,076,855 2,606,444 959,399 400,856 2.850.673 3.960.239 967.459 1.558. 814 741.539 1.313.140 2.074.054 5.382.205 172.089 680.984 820.745 1.114.059 534.413 931.140 1.195,002 1,898,222 Texas 9,308.503 4.5b8.594 4,739,909 Utah 1.288.935 1.173,683 115,252 Vermont 641.827 405,906 235,920 Virginia 3,374,821 3,128,563 246.258 Washington 2.656,948 575.253 2.081,695 West Virginia 1,380,305 843,927 536,378 Wisconsin 3.535.049 2.295.514 1.239.534 Wyoming 1.163.601 847.873 315.728 Dist. olCol. 416.277 74.202 342.075 Puerto Rico 993.72 8 7.602 986.126 TOTAL 158.889.274 86.422.087 72.467.287 STATUS OF FUNDS APPORTIONED FOR RAIL- HIGHWAY PROJECTS OFF FEDERAL-AID SYSTEM UNDER HIGHWAY ACT OF 1973 (As of June 30. 1976) Total Unobli- Appor- Total gated State tioned Obligated Balance Alabama 4.369.384 2.441.223 1.928,3^ Alaska 1.493.065 217.600 1.493,065 Arizona 2.349.957 658.010 1.691.947 Arkansas 2.860.190 1.066.104 1.794,056 California 19.885.499 5.950,949 13.934.549 Colorado 3.129.230 2.443,974 685,255 Connecticut 2.925.754 1.795.720 1.130.033 Delaware 1.227,970 1.169,469 58.500 Florida 7.418.371 5.624,795 1.793.576 Georgia 5.601.092 4.709.118 891.974 Hawaii 1.227.970 200.300 1.027 670 Idaho 1.525.292 618.792 906,500 Illinois 11.709.926 5,852,778 5,847,147 Indiana 5.929.926 3,225,573 2.704.353 Iowa 4.284.095 2.056.214 2.228.480 Kansas 4.031.142 2.340.072 1.691.070 Kentucky 3.800.196 2.200.637 1.599 558 Louisiana 4.025.255 3.845.196 180.059 Maine 1.227.970 51.182 1.176.787 Maryland 3.800.926 1.062.586 2.73? 340 Massachusetts 5.401.138 2.988.127 2.413.010 Michigan 9.555.083 4.643.923 4.921.159 Minnesota 5.289,189 5.216,6"/ 72.543 Mississippi 3.005.579 2,684,890 3207E9 Missouri 5,919,666 3.460.767 2. 458.893 Montana 1,713.868 1.617.285 95.583 Nebraska 2.770.420 1.497.317 1.273.103 Nevada 1.227.970 599.148 628.822 New Hampshire 1.227.970 400.156 827.813 New Jersey 6.720.356 3.422.348 3.293,003 New Mexico 1.675.583 610.424 1.065,153 New York 17, 522, .''69 4,250,934 13,271,3^5 North Carolina 5,813,940 4,708,372 1.105.5C3 North Dakota 1.918.500 1.870.153 46 341 Ohio 10.997.979 7.943.795 3.054 l?'. Oklahoma 3.976.415 1.344,720 2 631 CM Oregon 3,262,936 1,531,807 1,681,173 Pennsylvania 12.059,218 7.591.841 4.457.371 Rhode Island 1.227.970 195.733 1.032.235 South Carolina 3.219.530 1.208,999 2,010,531 South Dakota 1,760.743 847.635 913,103 Tennessee 4,695,uo3 1,592,5'''5 3.102.9?^ Texas 13.769.716 3.194.716 10.575.060 Utah 1.648.445 961.373 687.071 Vermont 1.227.970 568.920 659.049 Virginia 5.024.601 3,282.595 1.742.005 Washington 4.224.789 1.029.610 3.195.179 West Virginia 2.071.258 414.490 1.656,763 Wisconsin 5.515.894 5.159.121 356.772 V/yoming 1.227.970 354.457 873.513 Dist.ofCol, 1.227.970 774,447 453.522 Puerto Rico 2,451,43 9 794.0 46 ?, 657J92 TOTAL 242,175,185 124.351.940 117.823^44 252 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association ATTACHMENT 2 APPORTIONMENT OF FUNDS AUTHORIZED FOR PROJECTS ON FEDERAL-AIDHIGHWAY SYSTEM OTHER THAN THE INTERSTATE SYSTEM FOR FISCAL 1977' APPORTIONMENT OF FUNDS AUTHORIZED FOR PROJECTS NOT ON ANY FEDERAL-AID SYSTEM FOR FISCAL 1977° STATE AMOUNT STATE Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hiimpshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Dist. of Col Puerto Rico TOTAL •Fiscal 1978 apportionments ' forliscal 1977. AMOUNT 2.130.238 3.521.402 1.427,423 1.414.801 9.471.508 1.721.809 1.394.845 539.978 3.414.920 2.753.153 585.165 948.919 5.573.142 2.789.396 2.102,775 1.952.875 1.871.789 2.000.301 778.794 1.850.835 2.458.466 4.544.326 2.685.799 1.544.020 3.028.079 1.366,191 1.452.298 923.050 540.937 3.074.160 1.206.840 8.388.267 2.793.845 1.050.273 5.157,547 1.904.069 1.547.154 5,095.997 644.651 1.464.826 1.113.03G 2.342.882 7.104.597 964.122 485.028 2.489.759 2.020.658 1.013.209 2.675.985 874,033 314.582 1.074.706 122.187.500 'ill be the same as those Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dai^ota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Dist. of Col. Puert o Ric o TOTAL 1.278.143 2.112.842 856.453 848.881 5.682.905 1.033.085 836,907 323.987 2.048.952 1.651.892 351.099 569.352 3.343.885 1.673.637 1.261. C64 1.171.724 1.123,074 1.200.180 467.277 1.110.501 1.475.074 2.726.695 1.611.479 926.411 1.816.847 819.715 871.379 563.831 324. 6G3 1.844.495 724.105 5.032.950 1.676.307 630.165 3.094.528 1,142.442 928.292 3.417.599 386.790 878.895 667.822 1.405.729 4.262.758 578.4 73 291.017 1.493,856 1.212.395 607.926 1.605.590 524.450 188.74S 644,8 24 73.312,500 •Fiscal 1978 apportionments will be the same as those for fiscal 1977. While funds lor liscal '77 were appor- tioned to the states on Juiy 1. 1976, they must be appropriated by Conf.ress before becomTP, available to the slates for obligation as explained in the text. Report of Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals B. H. Price, Chairman P. C. White, Vice Chairman G. H. Chabot, Secretary H. L. Bishop J. F. Chandler H. B. Christianson S. J. Levy A. W. NiEMEYER C. E. Stoeckeh J. Zaenger R. P. Ainslie M. J. Anderson J. K. AusT R. O. Balsters R. F. Beck H. R. Beckmann A. E. Biermann (E) W. O. BOESSNECK ( E ) R. E. Bredberg H. E. Buchanan C. M. Burnette H. P. Clapp M. K. Clark D. V. Clayton A. V. Dasburg F. D. Day P. J. DeIvernois, Jr. P. P. Dunavant, Jr. R. D. Dykman V. H. Freygang M. R. Gruber, Jr. H. L. Haanes J. N. Hagan D. C. Hastings I. M. Hawver Wm. J. Hedley L. J. Held F. A. Hess (E) C. F. Intlekofer H. L. Keeler J. B. Kerry W. L. Krestinski C. J. Lapinski J. A. LeMaire E. T. Lucey S. N. MacIsaac J. G. Martin A. Matthews, Jr. H. J. McNally R. E. Metzger C. H. Mottier (E) F. J. Olsen W. L. Patterson J. C. PlNKSTON L. J. Rieckenberg W. P. ROBBINS W. A. Schoelwer D. A. Shoff J. G. Skeen W. D. Slater E. SZAKS L. G. TiEMAN J. N. Todd (E) A. J. Trzeclvk P. E. Van Cleve J. C. Weiser C. C. Yespelkis Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. The committee completed its work on the revision of Chapter 14 of the Manual in 1975. Revision of the glossary, as it pertains to Chapter 14, is now in progress. The status of Chapter 25, or any portions which may now be the responsibility of the committee, is awaiting clarification and direction. 1. Safety Controls in Yard System Design. Final report, presented as information page 254 2. Bulk Material Handling Systems, Collaborating as Necessary or Desir- able with Committees 6, 8 and 15. Progress report, submitted as information page 2.5.5 3. Terminal Facilities for Handling Solid Waste Material from an Ecology Standpoint, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committee 13. 253 254 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association No progress has been made on this subject since it was assigned. How- ever, a new subcommittee chairman has been appointed and it is anticipated that substantial progress will be made in the next year. 4. Car RoUability Research. There has been no activity concerning this subject pending further advice and direction from the Association. 5. Trends in Intermodal Facilities. Progress is being made on this subject and it is anticipated that tlie subcommittee will make its report in 1977. 6. Facilities for Line Repair and Servicing of Diesel Locomotives, Col- laborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committees 6 and 13. Final report, submitted as information page 7. Yard System Design for Two-Stage Switching. No progress to report on this subject at tliis time. The Committee on Yards and Terminals, B. H. Price, Chairman. Report on Assignment 1 Safety Controls in Yard System Design S. J. Levy (chairman, subcommittee), R. P. Ainslie, M. J. Anderson, R. O. Balsters, R. F. Beck, R. E. Bredberg, C. M. Burnette, G. H. Chabot, H. B. Christianson, Jr., H. P. Clapp, A. ^^ Dasburg, F. D. Day, P. J. DeIvernois, Jr., R. D. Dykman, J. N. Hagan, D. C. Hastings, L. J. Held, F. A. Hess, J. A. LEM.A.mE, J. C. Pinkston, B. H. Price, J. C. Weiser, P. C. White. Your committee submits the following report as information witli the recom- mendation that the subject be discontinued. Yard safety considerations involving system design may be divided into two basic categories. The first and most important is the safety of employes working on or about equipment. This involves primarily the use of blue signals as prescribed in Rule 26. These procedures now come under the provisions of Chapter 2, Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations as amended by tlie addition of Part 221. Control systems may be programmed to operate and lock switches, derails, and mechanical blue signal installations and to produce tlie required written records. The procedure may be initiated by tlie employee controlling the switches upon request from the employee in charge of the workmen or may be initiated by the foreman in tlie field tlirough a control terminal designed for his use. This latter system is better in that it eliminates one communication step as a possible source of error. A combination of systems using automatic and manual controls and com- munications may also be designed to provide the protection required. Dependence on a single method of communication should be avoided. Back-up systems and parity checks should be provided. As nnich j)ertinent information as possible should be exchanged between parties involved. Yards and Terminals 255 The second category deals with the safe and expeditious handling of equip- ment. The major functions in this category are usually a part of the system. Speed control, detection of overweight, oversize or shifted loads and inspection for car defects are nearly always a part of the system as originally designed. Location sensors to control the movement of switches and available track length indication are also usually a part of the system. The program is so established that backfeed from these indicators will override program instructions which could lead to an accident or rough handling. Presence detectors at clearance points can be used to monitor the trim end for run-outs. Otlier monitors can be used to provide warning of power losses, air pressure losses, rising waters where flooding could be a problem, slides, and derailed equipment. Some more sophisticated monitors can be used to p^o^•ide location, direction, and velocity of equipment and/or individuals. The location of such equipment and the programming of its functions should be designed to meet the needs of each individual situation. Wliere yard control systems are not in use, the provisions of Rule 26 as modi- fied by Federal Regulations still apply. Independent systems or subsystems may be designed and installed to perform any of the functions mentioned above. They should be designed to become an integral part of any future control system with only minimum modification. In any case, safety is of paramount importance. Its promotion requires that tlie details of every aspect of all operations should be given careful and thorough investigation. Such items as design for adequate track centers, clear sight lines, clear work areas, noise and dust control, lighting and many others will affect the design of safety controls and of the yard control system and its programming. Report on Assignment 2 Bulk Material Handling Systems J. F. Chandler (chairynan, subcommittee), all Members of Committee 14. Your committee submits the following interim report on tlie subject with the recommendation that the studies be continued. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 MATERIAL TO BE HANDLED There is a need for a report covering the most satisfactory methods of handling dry, bulk, granular solids. These materials remain undamaged by usual handling metliods and suffer little, if any, damage by exposure to the elements. Generally, ternu'nals for handling these materials have been designed to transfer individual connnodities. IIowe\cr, there are multi-material installations which handle as many as 30 diflerent materials. Due to the large number of materials with varied required handling systems, this study will only include niethods of handling coal, iron ore, aggregates, phosphates and coke. 256 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 1.2 METHOD OF HANDLING The majority of the subject materials is transferred from mine to processor (via rail), rail-to-ship (or barge), rail-to-storage and rail-to-processor, with the preponderance to tonnage moving by unit train. Handling of these materials at the terminal presents tlie railroad with the most problems and the most promise; for it is at this point that operational costs may have a large range of fluctuation. The type of handling or conveyor systems now being used depends upon the tvpe of car and the material handled. Generally these systems employ the use of bucket, screw and belt conveyors, chutes, pneumatic elevators, stackers, reclaimers, dumpers, power shovels and draglines. Handling equipment, along with methods for storing, measuring and sampling, will be considered in more detail later in this report. 2. SITE SELECTION The selection of an appropriate site for handling bulk granular solids will affect both near-term and long-term economics of the facility subsystem under consideration and its relationship with the overall operating network. 2.1 ACCESS The logistics of the facility's operations determines the access requirements for each individual transportation mode that interfaces at the facility, and, dius, the operating methods. 2.1.1 Rail The railroad operating methods at each facility will probaI)ly have the greatest impact on both site geometry and the facility's relationship with line-haul opera- tions. The most obvious situation would be related to imit-train operations with tlie necessary limitations on track curvatures and gradients, and the consequent requirements for locating the entrance and exit switches for the facility connections with o\'er-the-road operations. Many facilities have their own motive power and require single-direction operations. Therefore, provisions must be made for the necessary railroad locomoti\'e moves for delivering and pulling cars emptied or loaded at the facility. Generally, railroad and facility operations for unit trains are most efficient for continuous mo\es; however, a detailed economic analysis may determine that one, or more, doubling moves in receiving and/or departure yards would be accept- able. If it becomes necessary to break a unit train serving the facility, traffic condi- tions on the railroad may require additional studies. Such studies would determine the size, configmations and location of receiving and departure yards that would minimize or eliminate conflicts between railroad and facility operations. As a result of these studies, either or both yards could be some distance from the facility. Access to a batch-operated (non-unit train) facihty is most influenced by the railroad operations and the number of main tracks, although signals or signal circuits may affect the location of turnouts. The most significant factors related to railroad operations are present and long-term origins and destinations of trains that would serve the facility. Yards and Terminals 257 2.1.2 Water Service to the facility by water carriers requires a landing or dock area that provides for satisfactory loading or unloading and, if necessary, storage or standby anchorage. The loading or unloading position must have, naturally or by dredging, sufficiently deep water to allow for the maximum load draft required by any water carrier that would service the facility. The depth requirement will be modified by factors related to water density, wave and wind action, tides or otlier water level fluctuations, and barge, boat, or ship trimming methods. There should be sufficient space at, or convenient to, the facility where the water carrier can maneuver. The dock or landing requirements will vary considerably depending on whether ships, boats, or barges are used. Standby anchorage at the facility is not a major concern for ships and boats. Barges require both dead and live storage at or near the facility. Live storage is required for those barges currently scheduled for loading or unloading. Dead storage is necessary for those barges held at the facility but not required immediately. 2.1.3 Highway Highway access is necessary for operations and maintenance of any facility. Highway access may also be the primary means for transporting die bulk materials to or from the facility. At the least, the latter situation requires access roads witli adequate widths and load ratings for vehicles that service the facility. It is prefer- able that the access roads have favorable gradients, speed limits, and traffic conditions. 2.2 SITE CONDITIONS Site conditions generally affect construction requirements and procedures for tlie facility. These requirements relate to costs of both initial construction and maintenance. 2.2.1 Foundation Conditions The foundation conditions that usually have the greatest impact on design and construction of bulk material handling facilities are depth to the water table and soil bearing characteristics. Soil bearing characteristics will require analysis for static and, probably, dynamic loading conditions. The effects of large-scale sur- charging and die potential for, or the extent of, consolidation should be examined. A detailed investigation of water-table fluctuations is particuarly necessary in areas that are subject to significant seasonal variations. This will be especially true in instances where all, or part, of the site can be submerged. It may be nec- essary to place major foundations at higher elevations or to design them with sufficient mass to overcome the buoyant effects of the water. If it is determined that the site is satisfactory for some or all submersion con- ditions, further analyses must be made. These analyses include the structural precautions to insure die facility's long-term operations and an evaluation to deter- mine an acceptable frequency for being out of service due to flooding. This latter evaluation is a value analysis that compares the investment and maintenance costs for different facility designs with the costs of being out of service for statistically deteniiined periods of time each year. 2.2.2 Utilities The availability of utilities should be evaluated at two levels: (1) those directly associated with facility operations and (2) those required for facility support. 258 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association The first category would include power, heat, water, or sewage services required in large quantities for processing or handling the bulk materials. The second category includes tliese same services, plus communications, for the personnel operating the facility. The utility evaluation should include analysis of volumes, units, or levels of the various services available. Power is usually the most critical item since most of the other utilities can be dexeloped on site, i.e., drilling wells for water, storing coal or oil for heat, de^'eloping sewage treatment facilities, and providing private line or radio communications in lieu of public telephone service. Sewage service may include restrictions on quality, quantity, or the time schedule for release of materials into public lines. The effect of these restrictions can be offset by installation of partial treatment sewage plants, concentrators or thickeners, or holding ponds or tanks. 2.2.3 Drainage Drainage is a major consideration in any facility that requires a large surface area. The impact is related to both the quality and quantity of water affected by tlie facility. Local, state and federal regulations must be investigated to determine the limitations or prohibitions on materials associated with the facility operation contaminating the surface or subsurface drainage. Drainage patterns and capacities must be analyzed to prevent adverse effects on the unloading facility and to minimize the affect of the facility on existing drainage. Site grading can be used to reduce or eliminate drainage improvements that might be required off the facility property. Where allowed, surface runoff can be used to dilute contaminants to an acceptable level by integrating stockpile slope characteristics with oxerall site grading. Certain functional areas of this type facility tend to concentrate contaminants; the contamination may be either chemical or physical (i.e., fine particle sediments) in nature. Three areas that should be closely investigated are: (1) dumpers and/or reclaimers; (2) chutes and conveyors; and (3) dust control equipment such as blowers, suction lines, and baghouses. The investigation should include the effects of equipment washdown as a part of normal maintenance and operations, and the consequences of flooding — if that is a potential problem. Those specific areas where contaminants are extremely concentrated or, by their nature, require treatment should be isolated from uncontaminated surface and sub- surface water flows. Isolation can be accomplished through construction of lined ponds or gutters surrounded by concrete or lined earthen dikes. Diversion of un- contaminated flows can be accomplished by using cutoff ditches, french drains, perforated or standard piping, or granular filters. The uncontaminated waters would require no further treatment while the contaminated waters would be handled as described under Article 2.2.2, Utilities. If flooding can be a problem, consideration should be given to elevating the more critical parts of tlie facility to prevent or reduce damage and contamination; this may be required by local, state or federal regulations. If not legally required, it can be evaluated as a part of the foundation investigation, as outlined in .\rticle 2.2.1, Foundation Conditions. Bulk granular material handling facilities usually require large, relatively level areas adjacent to navigable water. As a result, the best available site may be on a flood plain. At the preliminary stages, the appropriate agencies should be gon- Yards and Terminals 259 tacted to determine if there are any special design, construction or operating constraints or if such a facility is prohibited on tlie site. Because flood plains are generally a part of the Hood-water storage system as determined by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and others, the development of a flood-plain site must not adversely afiect either the required Hood-water storage volume or die site's relation- ships with eitlier upstream or downstream discharge activities. 2.2.4 Space Required Evaluating the space required for a bulk material handling facility is a function of three factors: a. Geometry-determined dimensions. b. On-site storage. c. Potential for expansion. The geometry of the railroad tracks, as determined by the method of operation, can be expected to establish at least one dimension of the site. Sites which will accommodate this dimension should be considered even in those instances where the site might be shared with another, non-conflicting, use or where the terrain requires extensive earth moving or filling. If area or frontage is necessary to accom- modate an interface with non-rail transportation mode(s), this area or frontage must be conveniently available in quantities consistent with the current and projected requirements of the facility. Material may be stored in piles, railroad cars or special structures; this, along with the duration of storage, will determine the storage area. The site should pro- vide sufficient storage area to accommodate the maximum anticipated capacity of the facility. Bins and silos are often used in bulk material handling. They yield greater storage volumes per base unit area than either stockpiles or standing cars; however, this benefit is achieved at a higher capital cost. Their usual purposes are: (1) to ameliorate surge or slack material flows during transfer operations; (2) for blending of various grades or types of materials; or (3) as a part of a system to control dust associated with transfer operations. The economics of bidk materials handling facilities is often based on a single- shift operation. This allows a nominal triijling of capacity before extensive expansion is required. If it is reasonable to expect an even greater magnitude of expansion, the geometry of the facility and the site should be capable of accommodating such an expansion. 2.2.5 Zoning Where zoning ordinances exist, bulk material handling facilities are located in areas zoned for heavy industry. These facilities can produce conditions diat will be in conflict with higher zoning classifications. Prvident planning requires that the site, and preferably the surrounding area, be zoned for heavy industry. The granting of e.xceptions or variances to existing zoning codes or ordinances for the construction of a bulk materials handling facility may work to the long-term disad\'antage of the owner and/or the operator. Prior to final site selection, complete agreement is necessary on aesthetic and environmental standards for the site development. Included in such standards are tree and earthen bufters, limits and lexels of perceived sound and light, horns of operation, and site access routes. 260 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 6 Facilities for Line Repair and Servicing of Diesel Locomotives C. E. Stoecker (chairman, subcommittee), R. O. Balsters, G. H. Chabot, H. B. Christian-son, F. D. Day, P. P. Dunavant, Jr., L. J. Held, S. J. Levy, E. T. LucEY, B. H. Price, A. W. Xiemeyer, J. C. Pixkstox, W. P. Bobbins, W. A. ScHOELWER, L. G. TiEMAN, P. E. Van Cleve, P. C. White. Your committee submits the following report as information with the recom- mendation that the subject be discontinued. We wish to acknowledge assistance from the Locomotixe and Electrical Equipment Committee of AAR. For more de- tailed information see the annual reports of the Shop Equipment Committee of the Locomotixe Maintenance Officers Association. A program of line repair on diesel locomotives is desirable to improve loco- motive maintenance and reduce non-productive time. In conjunction with govern- mental regulations each railroad has developed its own set of guidelines that dictates when and how certain locomotixe maintenance procedures will be perfomied. The programming of Hne repairs and servicing of diesel locomotives is based on the spot system which actually simulates assembly-line techniques. Each spot has certain functions performed repetitively; any variance in manpower, material or equipment operation affects the entire line. The most prominent spot systems are: (a) Area spot system. Units are set out on designated maintenance tracks for certain work where labor, material, tools, etc. are brought to the units. Units are mo\ed from area to area. (b) Line spot system. Designated repair functions are perfomied on each unit at certain specific spots and tlie line moves progressively at stated intervals of time. Each spot is equipped with forces, tools, etc. and the unit is moved to each spot. In the latter system, the daily inspection of locomotives is performed on the fueling and sanding track before being placed on the receiving track and then to: Spot No. 1 — Full inspection and check on all component parts, change of filters, check on miming gear, electrical system and radio equipment. Spot Xo. 2 — Washing and cleaning. Spot No. 3 — Complete lubrication, brake adjustment and supplies replenished. Spot No. 4 — Inspection of main generators, power circuits, traction motors and component parts of dynamic brake system. A flexible spot system permits routing of locomotixes to: (a) Specialized running repair. (b) Back-shop repair. (c) Ready or dispatch track if additional repairs are not required. The physical layout of existing line repair facilities varies considerably. Some are new while others have evolved from modifications and modernization of older facilities to meet present needs. The design of an efficient spot system should consider the following features: (a) Receiving track with capacity to hold all locomotives to be worked through the system on schedule. Yards and Terminals 261 (b) Escape tracks where required. (c) Accessibility to work areas. (d) Work areas adequately tooled, well illuminated and ventilated, properly stocked with parts and supplies, equipped with necessary electrical and air outlets, etc. (e) Double-ended parallel tracks in lieu of a single line system where space is limited or supervisory control may become a problem. (f) Transfer table or turntable in a single line system to permit the moving of locomotives to areas for additional repairs or to be used for material handling. (g) Layout to facilitate supervision of operations and ease maintenance of plant. (h) Employees' amenities, including lunch, locker, shower rooms and other facilities. (i) Safety and fire control equipment. (j) Ready track where locomotives will receive air departure test, dynamic brake test and, in event of heavy repairs, load voltage test, (k) Waste, noise and air environmental impact requirements. DISCUSSION 263 Rail Wear and Corrugation Studies^ DISCUSSION BY R. I. MAIR' AND R. S. MURPHY^ The economic argument in favor of the use of 100-tonne-capacity gondola cars for the transportation of ore has as a background tlie operating experience gained at lower axle loads. The authors have pointed out some of the problems which may be encountered when the higher axle loads are adopted and which will inti'oduce a new maintenance factor into tlie economic analysis. However, for existing railways with a high percentage of heavy vehicles it is generally not practical to reduce the axle loads and alternative solutions must be found. It was for tliis reason that the Mt. Newman Mining Co. initiated research into track and vehicle perfomiance in late 1972 when rail corrugation was developing into a serious problem after only 50 Mt gross of traflBc. Tonnage over the track is now around 270 Mt gross. The Mt. Newman Mining Co. is one of several joint ventures established to develop the extensive deposits of massive blue haemotite of very high grade (65% Fe) in the Pilbara region of NW Australia. The track is single line standard gauge ( 1435 mm ) initially laid on 230 x 150 x 2590 mm Jarrah sleepers at 533 mm centers supported by 205 mm minimum depth of high grade granite ballast conforming to AREA No. 4 size grading. The rail section is AREA 132 RE (66 kg/m) supplied in 13.7 m lengtlis and flash butt welded to 439 m lengths. Field welding by SoW and SkV Theniiit processes has been used to form a continuously welded track. Rail support is on AREA plan 11, 8 hole base plates with full rail anchoring. (A program is underway to replace the spike and anchor system with Pandrol elastic rail fastenings. Alternative fastenings, steel and concrete sleepers are also under trial). Rail was initially canted at 1 in 40 throughout but higher cants are being incorporated into curves to reduce rail head deterioration (Table I). Main line track lengdi is 426 km with passing sidings. Maximum gradients between the mine site at Mt. Whaleback and tlie port at Port Hedland occur in tlie intervening Chichester ranges: 0.55% fully compensated against the loaded and 1.50% against the empty. Curves were kept to a minimum, the most severe being 3 degrees or 527 m radius. Total length of curves in mainline track is 20% of tlie track with a breakdown as shown in Table II. All curves 2 degrees and greater are lubricated with B.P. LMS 25 lubricant. The ore is transported in a fleet of over two-thousand 100-tonne-capacity gondola cars fitted with 965 mm diameter CR wrought wheels and swivel couplers. Wheels are turned yearly and bogies are on a three year maintenance cycle. Trains consists of 3 diesel-electric 2.68 MW (traction power) locomotives and 138 ore cars operating at maxinnnn speeds of 72 km/h empty and 64 km/h loaded. Up to 10 loaded trains per day are operated with a requirement for 12 per day when expan- sion to 40.6 Mt/year of ore (65 Mt/year gross) is complete. Operations are conducted in a hot dry climate. Accelerated rail wear takes the same form as that reported by the authors, namely: ^ Paper by F. E. King, senior technical advisor, Research and Development, Canadian National Railways, and Dr. J. Kalousek, senior research engineer, Department of Research, Canadian Pacific Limited, published in Bulletin 658, June-July 1976. ^ Engineering research manager, BHP Melbourne Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 264, Clayton, 3168, Australia. * Railroad manager, Mt. Newman Mining Co., P.O. Box 231, Port Hedland, 6721, Australia. 265 266 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association Degree of Curvature High Rail Low Rail Tangent 1 : 30 1 : 30 Tangent - 1° 1 : 20 1 : 30 1° - 2° 1 : 20 1 : 20 2° and over 1 : 14 1 : 20 Transition Spirals 1 1 : 20 or as required. TABLE I Mt. Newman Mining Rail Cant Installation Schedule Degree of Total Total Length % of Track Curvature Number (km) Length 0° - 30' 40 45.82 10.8 0° - 40' 1 2.42 0.6 0° - 45' 1 0. 55 0.1 1° - 00' 16 13.29 3.1 1° - 30' 1 0.65 0.2 2° - 00' 11 7.07 1.7 2' - 04' 1 0.59 0.1 2° - 15' 1 2.08 0.5 2° - 30' 5 4.14 1.0 3' - 00' 6 5.09 1.2 Total 83 81.70 19.2 TABLE II; Composition of Mainline Curved Track Discussion 267 m « c (H -p n) Si r", tj^ (u c E Qua M « -P u c tj o 0) u o en o o C O , (0 n SKEWNESS 1 • .4 *•• KURT08IS « 1 2.9 • le 12 (X) lilt 189.69 126.9 1 1 1 144 l.l. 161 ■■■■■■ •■■■■■■■■a ■•■«■■■■■■ 1 1 1 « 1 1 1.1 178.89 196 88 6fl 48 (X) 28 08 14 VARIABLE FIG. 1. TYPICAL SINGLE TRAIN VERTICAL WHEEL LOAD HISTOGRAM. In addition to wear data, records are also being maintained on the initiation of other rail defects and research undertaken into their source (5). Included amongst these are corrugations as discussed by the authors. Rail Corrugation Rail corrugations on the Mt. Newman track occur predominantly on the high rail. They were first noted between 45-50 Mt gross and have consistently reappeared 270 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association MEAN ORE MASS = 98 2 TONNE STANDARD DEVIATIONz 3 9TONNE MAXIMUM = 120 TONNE NUMBER OF TRAINS =401 90 92 5 95 97 5 ' 100 102 5 MEAN ORE MASS PER CAR (TONNE) lOSO 1075 FIG2 DISTRIBUTION OF ORE PER CAR, MAY-JULY, 1974 at that tonnage on new rail. Indeed, corrugations on the Hamersley Iron and Cliffs Robe River tracks having similar operating parameters are also reported to appear around the same tonnage. The authors report pitch lengths between 8-24 inches (200-600 mm), similar to those experienced on the Australian ore tracks. However, an examination of tlie corrugation profile suggests that the pitches are not random as might be implied but rather are the result of a finite number of superimposed regular pitches. Analyses have been conducted on a detailed measurement of the rail head longitudinal profile to determine the frequency (cycles/meter) of tlie comigation wave components at a late stage of development and these have been correlated with track/vehicle system resonances at the appropriate operating speeds (7, 8). In their assessment of the mechanism of rail corrugation formation the authors conclude that plastic flow of the rail head is one of the most significant factors. However, plastic flow is only a necessary condition for corrugation development and is not a sufficient condition. Plastic flow may occur without corrugation fonnation as the autliors have pointed out themselves. The necessary conditions also require the excitation of system resonance. Conversely, however, corrugations may be controlled by either avoidance of resonance or prevention of plastic flow. The authors have adopted the latter ap- proach and presented a useful discussion on the factors contributing to excessi\'e contact stresses and deformation. The writers ha\'e also adopted the latter approach as being the most acceptable for practical operation and a procedure has been developed which enaljles determination of the rail strength le\'el which nuist be achieved to prevent corrugation initiation. For the Mt. Newman conditions a mean Discussion 271 "XX)- 600- 500- ^400- 300- 200 100- SYMBOL OPERATION RAIL SECTION REF t Mf NEWMAN 132 RE - • HAMERSLEY 119CF+I - a ONS+L 132 RE (1) X CVRO TI5 RE (2) o B-H-E UO RE (3) 10 20 30 40 5-0 DEGREE OF CURVATURE (DEGREES) 60 70 FIG.S. HEAD WEAR OF STANDARD CARBON RAILS rail 0.2% proof stress of 745 MPa has been selected (minimum 0.2% proof stress =: 670 MPa) (9). Experience in track has so far supported the predictions. During the eight years of its operation the Mt. Newman Mining Co. has built up a wide experience in unit train haulage and the maintenance penalties imposed by heavy axle load operations. It is intended to share diis experience with odiers. The above comments refer to some of the published data on Mt. Newman's obser- vations related to rail life and on investigations underway to extend that life. These studies were initiated as a cooperative program between the rail producer (BHP) and the Mt. Newman Mining Co. railroad operating department with Hamersley Iron Pty. Ltd. participating in the studies since 1975. REFERENCES 1. Managhan, B. M., "Effects of Heavy Axle Loads on Rail and Ties", 12th Annual Railroad Eng. Conf., Pueblo, Colorado, Oct. 1975, 45-48. 2. Ohvera, J. H. de S., "The Rail Under High Density Traffic", CVRD Vitoria Minas Railway Rept., 1968. 272 Bulletin 660 — American Railway Engineering Association 3. Rougas, M., "Observations on the Effect of Heavy Wheel Loads on Rail Life", 12th Annual Railroad Eng. Conf., Pueblo, Colorado, Oct. 1975, 41-44. 4. Koenen, B. H. N., "10 Years of Operating Experience on tlie LAMCO Railroad", LAMCO Railroad Dept. Repts., May 1973. 5. Marich, S. and Curcio, P., "Development of High Strength Alloy Rails Suitable For Heavy Duty Applications", ASTM Symposium Rail Steels-Developments Processing and Use, Denver, November, 1976. 6. Kenyon, M. and Groenhout, R., "Mini-Computer Analysis of Multi-Channel Field Data", Inst. Engrs. Aust. Conf., Computers in Engineering, Perth, Sept. 1976, 15.3-157. 7. Mair, R. I. and Jupp, R. A., "Rail Track for Heavy Unit Train Operations", Inst. Engrs. Aust., Annual Conf., Townsville, May, 1976, 383-387. 8. Mair, R. I. et. al., "Characteristics and Development of Long Pitch Rail Corruga- tion at Heavy A.xle Loads" (In preparation). 9. Mair, R. I. and Groenhout, R., "Prediction of Rail Steel Strength Requirements — A Reliability Approach, ' ASTM Symposium, Rail Steels — Developments, Process- ing and Use, Denver, \o\'ember, 1976. AUTHORS' CLOSING STATEMENT We are familiar with excellent work being carried out in Australia and have very little to add to the discussion by Messrs. Mair and Murphy since tlieir remarks are based on a very thorough investigation of rail wear under more closely controlled conditions than are possible on our own railways. Li general, tlie type of equipment used and the track structure is almost identical to both our railway lines in British Columbia. However, our curvatures are much sharper. For example, approximately 20% of the CN and CP main line track in British Columbia is in curves of 4 degrees and greater. In addition, climatic and operating conditions in Canada are different. As a result, rail strength requirements in Canada may be different to those in Australia. Although the control of corrugation by the prevention of plastic flow is the most useful approach to be taken at this time, other factors than rail strength must also be given adequate consideration. For example, comigation initiation and propa- gation may be accelerated by undesirable conditions such as vehicle tracking, wide gauge, excessive wheel tread and flange wear, excessive or inadequate flange lubri- cation, and poor tie founding. Measures designed to reduce or eliminate these conditions are also necessary in any program for corrugation control. DIRECTORY CONSULTING ENGINEERS FRANK R. WOOLFORD Enginsering Consultant^Railroodi 24 Josepha Ave. San Francisco, Co. 94132 (415) 587-1569 246 Seadrift Rd. Stinson Beach, Co. 94970 (415) 868-1555 MH Westenhoff & Novick, Inc. Consulting Engineers Civil — Mechanical — Electrical Fixed & Movable Bridges Soils, Foundations, Buildings Structural & Underwater Investigations Planning, Feasibility, Design, Inspection 222 W. Adams St., Chicago, III. 60606 New York Washington Panama HAZELET & ERDAL Consulting Engineers Design Investigations Reports Fixed and Movable Bridges 150 So. Wacker Dr., Chicago, III. 60606 Louisville Cincinnati Washington 1 IPL ITr^ "°^*PO MEEOLE8 Feasibility studies and design services for Bus and rail transit Terminals Regional and urt>an planning Parking Soils and foundations Tunnel* Structures Utilities Environmental impact studies Offices in 28 cities 816 474^900 1805 Grand Avenue, Kansas City, Missouri 64108 MODJESKI AND MASTERS ContulHng Design, Inspection of Construction & In- spection of Physical Condition of Fixed & Movable Railroad Bridges P.O. Bex 2345, Harrisburg, Pa. 17105 1055 St. Charles Ave., Nevy Orleans, La. CLARK, DIETZ AND ASSOCIATES-ENGINEERS, INC. Coitsu/ting Engln9»n Bridges Structures, Foundations, Indus- trial Wastes and Railroad Relocation 211 No. Race St., Urbano, III. Sanford, Fla. Memphis, Tenn. Jackson, Miss. St. Louis, Mo. Chicago, III. 272-1 272-2 Directory of Consulting Engineers tember-October aad November-December, at 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, m. 60605 Secoad das postaxe at Chicago, 111., and at additional mailiaf officet. Subscription $20 per annum Copyright © 1977 AUEKICAN RAn.WAY EnGINEESING ASSOClATlOM All rights reserved. No part of this publicatioo may be reproduced, stored in as information or dau retrieval lyatMt, or transmitted, ia any form, or by any means — electr <"' where frL Mcr = yt and fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Article 2.26(A)(1). For continuous spans, the effective moment of inertia may be taken as tlie average of the values obtained from Eq. (4-1) for the critical positive and negative moment sections. (4) Computation of long-time deflection — Unless values are obtained by more comprehensive analysis, the additional longtime deflection for both normal weight and hghtweight concrete flexural members shall be obtained by nmltiplying tlie immediate deflection caused by the sustained load considered, computed in accord- ance with paragraph (3) above, by the factor (2-1.24^) 0.6 (H) Bearings Bearing devices shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 8, Part 18 or Chapter 15, Part 1. Bearing stresses in concrete shall not exceed tlie values given in Article 2.26 or 2.36. 300 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY (I) Composite Concrete Flexural Members ( 1 ) Application Composite flexural members consist of concrete elements constructed in sepa- rate placements but so interconnected that tlie elements respond to loads as a unit. (2) General Considerations (a) The total deptli of the composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting tlie shear and the bending moment. The individual elements shall be investigated for all critical stages of loading. (b) If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various components are different, the properties of the individual components, or tlie most critical values, shall be used in design. (c) In calculating the ultimate flexural strength of a composite member by load factor design, no distinction shall be made between shored and un- shored members. (d) All elements shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior to the full development of the design strength of the composite member. (e) Reinforcement shall be provided as necessary to control cracking and to prevent separation of the components. ( 3 ) Shoring When used, shoring shall not be removed until the supported elements have developed the design properties required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking at the time of shoring removal. (4) Vertical Shear (a) When the total depth of the composite member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.29 or Article 2.35 as for a monolithically cast member of the same cross-sectional shape. (b) Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored in accordance with Article 2.21. Extended and anchored shear reinforcement may be included as ties for horizontal shear. (5) Horizontal Shear In a composite member, full transfer of the shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the separate components. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.29(E) or Article 2.35(E). (J) T-Girder Construction ( 1 ) In T-girder construction, the girder web and slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. Full transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interface of web and slab. Where applicable, the design requirements of Article 2.23(1) for composite concrete members shall apply. (2) Compression Flange Width (a) The effective slab width acting as a T-girder flange shall not exceed one- fourth of the span length of the girder, and its overhanging width on either side of the girder shall not exceed six times the thickness of the slab nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder. (b) For girders having a slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1/12 of the span length of the girder, nor six Concrete Structures and Foundations 301 PRELIMINARY times the thickness of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder. (c) Isolated T-girders in which the flange is used to provide additional com- pression area shall have a flange tliickness not less than one-half die width of the girder web and a total flange width not more tlian four times the width of the girder web. (3) Diaphragms Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the judgement of tlie engineer. (K) Box-Girder Construction (1) In box-girder construction, the girder web and top and bottom slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. Full transfer of shear forces shall be assured at tiie interfaces of the girder web with the top and bottom slab. Design shall be in accordance widi the requirements of Article 2.23(1). When required by design, changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness. (2) Compression Flange Width (a) The effective slab width as a girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the girder, and its overhanging widdi on either side of the girder web shall not exceed six times the least thicknesss of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder web. (b) For girder webs having a slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1/12 of the span length of tlie girder, nor six times the least thickness of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder web. (3) Top and Bottom Slab Thickness (a) The thickness of tiie top slab shall be designed for loads specified in Article 2.2(C)(3), but shall be not less than the minimum specified in Table 2.40. (b) The thickness of the bottom slab shall be not less than 1/16 of the clear span between girder webs or 6 in., whichever is greater, except that the thickness need not be greater than the top slab unless required by design. (4) Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcement (a) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.4 percent of tlie flange area shall be placed in the bottom .slab parallel to the girder span. A single layer of reinforcement may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed 18 in. (b) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.5 percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18 in. All transverse reinforcement in die bottom slab shall extend to tiie exterior face of the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90-deg hook. (c) At least 1/3 of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement in the top slab shall extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each 302 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY group and be anchored by a standard 90-deg hook. If the slab extends beyond the last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond die exterior face of the girder web not less than that provided by a standard hook. ( 5 ) Diaphragms Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the judgement of the engineer. Diaphragm spacing for curved girders shall be given special consideration. 2.24 DESIGN METHODS The design methods to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the engineer. SERVICE LOAD DESIGN (APPLICABLE TO ARTICLES 2.25 THROUGH 2.29) 2.25 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (A) For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to service loads and allowable stresses, the service load stresses shall not exceed tlie values given in Article 2.26. (B) Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required under "DE- VELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT." 2.26 ALLOWABLE SERVICE LOAD STRESSES (A) Concrete For service load design, the stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following: ( 1 ) Flexure Extreme fiber stress in compression, fc 0.40 fc' Modulus of rupture, fr from tests, or if data are not available: Normal weight concrete Lightweight concrete (2) Shear' Beams: Shear carried by concrete, Vc Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear reinforcement, v Slabs and Footings ( peripheral shear ) : *' Shear carried by concrete, Vc (3) Bearing on loaded area, fu but not to exceed 1050 psi Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 in. 7.5 Vf'c 6.3 Vf'c 0.95 VTc + 4 Vf'c 1.8 vt; 0.30 fc' " For more detailed analysis of permissible shear stress, v« , carried by the concrete, and shear values for lightweight aggregate concrete — see Article 2.29(B). »">See Article 2.29(F). Concrete Structures and Foundations 303 PRELIMINARY (B) Reinforcement For service load design, tlie tensile stress in the reinforcement, fs, shall not exceed the following: Grade 40 or Grade 50 reinforcement 20,000 psi Grade 60 reinforcement 24,000 psi Fatigue Stress Limit — The range between a maximum and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load plus impact shall not exceed the value obtained from: f sr = 23.4 — 0.33 f,„ In where fsr ^ allowable stress range in ksi fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range. 2.27 FLEXURE For investigation of service load stresses, tlie straight-hne theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be used and the following assmnptions shall be made: (a) A section plane before bending remains plane after bending; strains vary as the distance from the neutral axis. (b) The stress-strain relation of concrete is a straight line under service loads within the allowable service load stresses. Stresses vary as the distance from the neutral axis except, for deep flexural members witli overall depth/ clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of stress should be considered. (c) The steel takes all the tension due to flexure. (d) The modular ratio, n = Eg/Ec, may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for deflections, the value of n for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for nonnal weight concrete of the same strength. (e) In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of 2 Es/Ec shall be used to transform the compression reinforcement for stiess computations. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not be greater than the allowable tensile stress. 2.28 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE The combined axial load and moment capacity of compression members shall be taken as 35 percent of that computed in accordance with the provisions of Article 2.33. Slenderness effects shall be included according to the requirements of Article 2.34. The term Pu in Eq. (6-15) shall be replaced by 2.85 times the axial design load. In using the provisions of Articles 2.33 and 2.34, shall be taken as 1.0. 2.29 SHEAR (A) Shear Stress (1) The design shear stress, v, shall be computed by: 304 Biilletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY ■ ^ (s-i; bwd where bw shall be taken as the width of web and d shall be taken as the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement. For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter and d need not be taken less than the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member. (2) When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces com- pression into the end region of the member, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear, v, as that com- puted at a distance d. (3) The shear stress carried by the concrete, Vc, shall be calculated according to Article 2.29(B). When v exceeds Vc, shear reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.29(C). Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion* shall be added. (B) Permissible Shear Stress (1) The shear stress carried by the concrete, Vc, shall not exceed 0.95 Vf'c unless a more detailed analysis is made in accordance with (2) or (3). For mem- bers subjected to axial tension, Vc shall not exceed the value given in (4). For lightweight concrete, the provisions of (5) shall apply. (2) The shear stress carried by the concrete, Vc, may be computed by: Vc = 0.9 Vf7 + 1100p,v -^ (5-2) M but Vc shall not exceed 1.6 Vf'c. The quantity Vd/M shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where M is the applied design moment occurring simultaneously with V at the section considered. (3) For members subjected to axial compression, Vc, may be computed by: ve = 0.9 (l-h 00Q^Q7N-| ^jr (5_3) The quantity shall be expressed in psi. Ag (4) For members subjected to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a more detailed analysis is made using vc==0.9( l+-0^^)vf: (3^) where N is negative for tension. The quantity — — shall be expressed in psi. Ag (5) The provisions for shear stress, Vc, carried by the concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When hghtweight aggregate concretes are used, one of the follow- ing modifications shall apply: " The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in "Building Code Require- ments for Reinforced Concrete — ACI 318-71" may be used. Concrete Structures and Foundations 305 PRELIMINARY (a) When fct is specified, the shear stress, Vc, shall be modified by substituting — ^-^ for Vf'c, but the value of — ^ used shall not exceed Vf'c 6.7 6.7 (b) When fct is not specified, tlie shear stress, Vc, shall be multiplied by 0.85. (C) Design of Shear Reinforcement (1) Shear reinforcement shall conform to tlie general requirements of Article 2.10. When shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, the required area shall be computed by: Av= (y-p)^^-^ (5^) Is (2) Wlien inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply: (a) When inclined stirrups are used, the required area shall be computed by: A.^ ^ (V-Ve)b.S (5_g) ts ( sm a + cos a ) (b) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at tlie same distance from the support, tlie required area shall be computed by: A. = (V-Ve)bwd ( g_7 ) ts sin a in which (v — Vc) shall not exceed 1.5 Vf'c (c) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at different distances from tlie support, the required area shall be computed by (a). (d) Only tlie center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered effective for shear reinforcement. (3) Where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, the required area shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of tlie total shear resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, Vc shall be included only once. (4) When (v — Vc) exceeds 2 Vf'c, the shear reinforcement shall be so placed that every 45-deg line, representing a potential diagonal crack and extending from mid-depth, d/2, of the member to the longitudinal tension bars, shall be crossed by at least two lines of reinforcement. (5) The value of (v — Vc) shall not exceed 4 Vf'c. ( D ) Shear-friction ( 1 ) These provisions apply where it is inappropriate to consider shear as a measure of diagonal tension, and particularly in design of reinforcing details for precast concrete structural elements. (2) A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear patli. Relative displace- ment shall be considered resisted by friction maintained by shear-friction reinforce- ment across the crack. This reinforcement shall be approximately perpendicular to the assumed crack. Bui. Grovicles for the possibility that small adverse variations in material strengths, workmanship, and dimensions, while individually within acceptable tolerances and limits of good practice, may combine to result in under capacity. Concrete Structures and Foundations 309 PRELIMINARY (5) The relationship between the concrete compressive stiess distribution and the concrete strain may be assumed to be a rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement witli the results of comprehensive tests. (6) The requirements of Article 2.31(A)(5) may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution which is defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85 fc' shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equiva- lent compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a = jSjc from the fiber of maxi- mum compressive strain. The distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis is measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The fraction Pi shall be taken as 0.85 for strengths fc' up to 4000 psi and shall be reduced con- tinuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi of strengtli in excess of 4000 psi. 2.32 FLEXURE (A) Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members ( 1 ) For flexTiral members, the reinforcement ratio, p, provided shall not ex- ceed 0.75 of that ratio, Pb, which would produce balanced conditions for the sec- tion under flexure. (2) Balanced conditions exist at a cross section when the tension reinforce- ment reaches its specified yield strength, fy, just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003. (B) Rectangular Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (1) For rectangular sections, the design moment strength may be computed by: M„ = Asf .d { 1 - -Mff^^ (6-1) = 0Ajy(^ d- -|-) (6-2) where „ _ Asfy 0.85 fob (2) The balanced reinforcement ratio, Pu, for rectangular sections with ten- sion reinforcement only is given by: ^ OjgM^/ 87.000 \ ( 6_3 ) fy V 87,000 +fy 7 (C) I- and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only ( 1 ) When the compression flange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, a, the design moment strength may be computed by the equations given in (B)(1). (2) When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength may be computed by: Mu=0 r (A.-A.Ofy ( d I^W A»,f,(d-0.5hr) 1 (6-4) 310 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY where Asr = 0.85fc'(b-bw) -^ (A.-AsQf, ^ 0.85f'cbw (3) The balanced reinforcement ratio, Pt, for I- and T-sections with tension reinforcement only is given by: b 0.85 Af'c / 87,000 , „ \ (a_K\ where Asf Pt = bwd (4) For T-girder and box-girder construction defined by Articles 2.23(J) and 2.23(K), the width of the compression face, b, shall be equal to the effective slab width. (D) Rectangular Sections With Compression Reinforcement (1) For rectangular sections, the design moment strength may be com- puted by: Mu=0 [ {As-A.')iy( d- ^^ + A.'f,(d-d') J (6-6) where a^ (A. -A/)f, 0.85 f'c b and the following condition shall be satisfied: As — A's ^^ 0.85 i3i fed' / o/,uuu \ (6-7) / 87,000 \ V 87,000 — fy/ bd "~ f,d (2) When the value of (As — As')/bd is less than the value given by Eq. (6-7), so that the stress in the compression reinforcement is less than the yield strength, fy, or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the moment strength may be computed by the equations in (B)(1), except when a general analysis is made based on stress and strain compatibility using the assump- tions given in Article 2.31. (3) The balanced reinforcement ratio, Pb, for rectangular sections with com- pression reinforcement is given by: 0.85j8J'e/ 87,000 \ + p'f. /«on '"= -^^y 87,000 -f f, )—ir~ ^ ^ where fs' = stress in compression reinforcement (E) Other Cross Sections For other cross sections the design moment strength, Mu = 0Mt, shall be com- puted by a general analysis based on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Article 2.31. The requirements of Article 2.32(A) shall also be satisfied. Concrete Structures and Foundations 311 PRELIMINARY 2.33 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE (A) General Requirements ( 1 ) The design of cross sections subject to combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using the assimiptions given in Article 2.31. Slendemess effects shall be included according to the requirements of Article 2.34. (2) All members subjected to a compression load shall be designed for an eccentricity, e, equal to the greater of (a) that corresponding to the maximum design moment which accompanies this compression load, or (b) 0.05 h for spirally reinforced compression members, or 0.10 h for tied compression members, about either axis, or (c) 1 in. about either axis. (B) Compression Member Strengths The following provisions may be used as a guide to define the range of the load-moment interaction relationship for members subjected to combined flexure and axial load. (1) Piure Compression The axial design load strength in pure compression, Po, may be computed by: P„zr:0[O.85fc'(Ag-A,t)+Astfy] (6-9) Concentric loading is a hypothetical loading condition since all members sub- jected to a compression load shall be designed for eccentricities not less than the value given in Article 2.33(A)(2). (2) Pure Flexure The assumptions given in Article 2.31, or the applicable equations for flexure given in Article 2.32 may be used to compute the design moment strength, Mu, in pure flexure. (3) Balanced Conditions Balanced conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 2.32(A)(2). For a rectangular section with reinforcement in one or two faces and located at ap- proximately the same distance from the axis of bending, the balanced load, Pu, and balanced moment, Mi,, may be computed by: P, = [0.85fc'bab + A/f»' - A.fJ ( 6-10) and M where ^^p,,e^^0|^O.85fe'bab(d-d"--|L^ + A,'f/(d-d'-d")+A.f,d" 1(6-11) / 87,000 \ fl , ^-^ ( 87,000+ f 7)^'^ f. = 87,00o[l--if)-(^WA)J^, 312 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY (4) Combined Flexure and Axial Load The design strength imder combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Article 2.31. The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension when the axial design load strength, Pu, is less than Pb (or e is greater than ci,). The strength of a cross sec- tion is controlled by compression when the axial design load strength, Pu, is greater than Pb (or e is less than Cb). The combined axial load and moment strength shall be multiphed by the ap- propriate capacity reduction factor, 0, for spirally reinforced or tied compression members as given in Article 2.30(A). The value of may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the axial design load strength, Pu, decreases from O.lOfc'Ag or Pb, whichever is smaller, to zero. (C) Biaxial Loading In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and strain compatibility for a loading condition of biaxial bending, the design strength of non-circular members subjected to biaxial bending may be computed by the following approxi- mate expressions: 1 P„,yr=_l_^_^__J_ (6-12) X ux -t^uy Jto when the applied axial design load, Pu^O.lfe'Ag or _M!^ + _Mi.^l (6-13) Mux Muy when the applied axial design load, Pu < 0.1 fe'Ag 2.34 SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS (A) General Requirements ( 1 ) The design of compression members shall be based on forces and mo- ments determined from an analysis of the structure. Such an analysis shall take into account the influence of axial loads and varial^le moment of inertia on mem- ber stiffness and fixed-end moments, the effect of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effects of the duration of the loads. (2) In lieu of the procedure described in paragraph (1), tlie design of com- pression members may l)e based on the approximate procedure given in Article 2.34(B). (B) Approximate Evaluation of Slendemess Effects (1) The unsupported length, L, of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between slabs, girders, or other members capable of providing lateral support for the compression member. Where haunches are present, the unsupported length shall be measured to the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered. Concrete Structures and Foundations 313 PRELIMINARY (2) The radius of gyration, r, may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction in which stability is being considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circular compression mem- bers. For other shapes, r may be computed for the gross concrete section. (3) For compression members braced against side sway, the effective length factor, k, shall be taken as 1.0, unless an analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For compression members not braced against side sway, the effective length factor, k, shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness, and shall be greater than 1.0. (4) For compression members braced against side sway, the effects of slendemess may be neglected when kL/r is less than 34 — I2M1/M2. For compres- sion members not braced against side sway, the effects of slendemess may be neglected when kL/r is less than 22. For all compression members with klu/r greater than 100, an analysis as defined in Article 2.34(A)(1) shall be made. Ml = value of smaller design end moment on compression member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature. M2 ;=: value of larger design end moment on compression member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, always positive. (5) Compression members shall be designed using the applied axial design load, Pu, from a conventional elastic analysis and a magnified moment, Mc, de- fined by: Me^SM^ (6-14) where Cn, S= p;^ 1^ 1.0 (6-15) ~ 0Pc and ''■=w- <^"'' In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken either as ^'= 1 + ,. ^"-''^ or conservatively 2 ^-(l + A, ) (6-18) where ^a is the ratio of maximum design dead load moment to maximum design total load moment, always positive. For members braced against side sway and without transverse loads between supports, Cm may be taken as C„ = 0.6 4- 0.4 -^ (a-19) M2 but not less than 0.4. For all other cases C„, shall be taken as 1.0. (6) When design of compression members is governed l)y the minimum eccentiicities specified in Article 2..33(A)(2), M2 in Eq. (6-14) shall be based on 314 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY the specified minimum eccentricity with conditions of curvature determined by either of the following: (a) When the actual computed eccentricities are less than the specified mini- mum, the computed end moments may be used to evaluate the conditions of curvature. (b) If computations show that there is no eccentricity at both ends of the member, conditions of curvature shall be based on a ratio of M1/M2 equal to one. (7) When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis shall be amplified by S^ computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis. (8) In structures which are not braced against side sway, the flexural mem- bers shall be designed for the total magnified end moments of the compression members at the joint. (9) When a group of compression members on one level comprises a bent, or when they are connected integrally to the same superstructure, and collectively resist the side sway of the structure, the value of 5 shall be computed for the member group. Pu and Pc shall be taken as the summation of Pu and Pc for all members in the group. In designing each member in the group, 5 shall be taken as the larger of (a) the value computed for the group as a Avhole, or (b) the value computed for the individual compression member assuming its ends to be braced against side sway. 2.35 SHEAR (A) Shear Strength (1) The design shear stress, Vu, shall be computed by: vu=— ^ (6-20) 0bwd where bw shall be taken as the vddth of web and d shall be taken as the distance from the extreme compression fiber to tlie centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement. For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter and d need not be taken less than the distance from the extreme compression fiber to tlie centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member. (2) When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces com- pression into the end region of the member, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear, Vu, as tliat computed at a distance d. (3) The shear stress carried by the concrete, Vc, shall be calculated according to Article 2.35(B). When Vu exceeds Vc, shear reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35(C). Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion** shall be added. ' The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in "Building Code Reqtiirements for Reinforced Concrete — ACI 318-71" may be used. Concrete Structures and Foundations 315 PRELIMINARY (B) Permissible Shear Stress (1) The shear stress carried by the concrete, v,-, shall not exceed 2Vf'c unless a more detailed analysis is made in accordance with (2) or (3). For mem- bers subjected to axial tension, Vc shall not exceed the value given in (4). For lightweight concrete, the provisions of (5) shall apply. (2) The shear stress carried by the concrete, Vc, may be computed by: Vc = 1.9 VT7 + 2500Pw ^^ (&-21 ) Mu but Vc shall not exceed 3.5Vf'c. The quantity --^ shall not be taken greater Mu than 1.0, where Mu is the applied design moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered. (3) For members subjected to axial compression, Vc may be computed by: Vc = 2 (' 1 + 0.0005 ~^\ VF7 (6-22) The quantity Nu/Ag shall be expressed in psi. (4) For members subjected to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a more detailed analysis is made using Vc = 2 ( 1 + 0.002 ^\ Vf7 (6-23) where Nu is negative for tension. The quantity Nu/Ae shall be expressed in psi. (5) The provisions for shear stress, Vc, carried by the concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concretes are used, one of the fol- lowing modifications shall apply: (a) When fct is specified, the shear stress, Vc, shall be modified by substitut- ing fct/6.7 for VF'c, but the value of fct/6.7 used shall not exceed VfV (b) When fct is not specified, the shear stress, Vc, shall be multiplied by 0.85. (C) Design of Shear Reinforcement (1) Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Article 2.10. When shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, the required area shall be computed by: Av=: (V"-vOtjwS (g_04) fy (2) When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply: (a) When inclined stirrups are used, the required area shall be computed by: ^^^ (vu-vjb„^ (6-25) ry(sma+ cos a) (b) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same distance from the support, tlie required area shall be computed by: 316 Btilletin 661 — American RaJway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY A,^ (va-vc)bwd (g_26) fy sin a in which (vu — v,. ) shall not exceed SVf'c (c) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at different distances from the sup- port, the required area shall be computed by (a). (d) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any one longi- tudinal bar that is bent shall be considered effective for shear reinforce- ment. (3) Where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, the required area shall be computed as the stun for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than % of the total shear resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, Vc shall be included only once. (4) When (vu — Vc) exceeds 4Vf'c, the shear reinforcement shall be so placed that every 45-deg line, representing a potential diagonal crack and extend- ing from mid-depth, d/2, of the member to the longitudinal tension bars, shall be crossed by at least two lines of reinforcement. (5) The value of (vu — Vc) shall not exceed SVf'c (D) Shear-friction (1) These provisions apply where it is inappropriate to consider shear as a measure of diagonal tension, and particularly in design of reinforcing details for precast concrete structiu^al elements. (2) A crack shall be assmned to occur along the shear path. Relative dis- placement shall be considered resisted by friction maintained by shear-friction reinforcement across the crack. This reinforcement shall be approximately perpen- dicular to the assumed crack. (3) The shear stress, Vu, shall not exceed 0.2 fc' nor 800 psi. (4) The required area of reinforcement, Avf, shall be computed by A.,= _X!L_ (6-27) 0fyM The coeflBcient friction, M, shall be 1.4 for concrete cast monolitliically, 1.0 for con- crete placed against hardened concrete, and 0.7 for concrete placed against as- rolled structural steel. (5) Direct tension across the assumed crack shall be provided by additional reinforcement. (6) The shear-friction reinforcement shall be well distributed across the assumed crack and shall be adequately anchored on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices. (7) When shear is transferred between concrete placed against hardened concrete, the interface shall be rough, clean, and free of laitance widi a full amplitude of approximately }i in. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete, the steel shall be clean and witliout paint. Concrete Structures and Foundations 317 PRELIMINARY (E) Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members ( 1 ) In a composite member, full transfer of the shear forces shall be assured at tlie interfaces of the separate components. (2) Full transfer of horizontal shear forces may be assumed when all of the following are satisfied: (a) the contact surfaces are clean and intentionally rough- ened, (b) minimum ties are provided in accordance with paragraph (6), (c) web members are designed to resist die entire vertical shear, and (d) all shear rein- forcement is anchored into all intersecting components. When all of the above are not satisfied, horizontal shear shall be fully investigated. (3) The horizontal shear stress, Vdi,, may be computed at any cross section as in which d is for the entire composite section. Alternatively, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred may be computed, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear to the supporting element. The factor for shear shall be used with the compressive or tensile forces. (4) The horizontal shear may be transferred at contact surfaces using the permissible horizontal shear stress, Vh, stated below. (a) When ties are not provided, but the contact surfaces are clean and in- tentionally roughened, permissible Vh ^= 80 psi. (b) When the minimum tie requirements of paragraph (6) are provided and the contact surfaces are clean but not intentionally roughened, per- missible Vh ^= 80 psi. (c) When the minimum tie requirements of paragraph (6) are provided and the contact surfaces are clean and intentionally roughened, permissible Vn := 350 psi. (d) When Vdh exceeds 350 psi, design for horizontal shear shall be made in accordance with Article 2.35(D). (5) When tension exists peipendicular to any surface, shear transfer by contact may be assmned only when the minimum tie requirements of paragraph (6) are satisfied. (6) Ties for Horizontal Shear (a) When vertical bars or extended stirrups are used to transfer horizontal shear, the tie area shall not be less than that required by Article 2.10 (A)(2) and the spacing shall not exceed four times the least dimension of the supported element nor 24 in. (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars, multiple leg stir- rups, or the vertical legs of welded wire fabric. All ties shall be ade- quately anchored into the components by embedment or hooks. (7) Measure of Roughness Internal roughness may be assumed only when the contact surface is rough- ened, clean, and free of laitance. Roughness shall have a full amplitude of approxi- mately /4 in. 318 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY (F) Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (1) The shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more severe of two conditions: (a) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section ex- tending in a plane across the entire width and located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condi- tion, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles 2.35(A) through (C). (b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicu- lar to the plane of the slab and located so that its periphery is a mini- mum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the periphery of the concen- trated load reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with paragraphs (2) and (3). (2) The peripheral shear stress shall be computed by: vu = ^" ( 6-29 ) 0b„d in which Vu and bo are taken at the critical section defined in (b). The peripheral shear stress, Vu, shall not exceed the shear stress carried by the concrete, Vc = 4Vf'c. (3) Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires anchored in accordance with Article 2.21 may be provided. For design of such shear reinforcement, shear stresses shall be investigated at the critical section defined in (a) and at successive sections more distant from the support; and the shear stress, Vc, carried by the concrete at any section shall not exceed 2Vf'c. Where Vu exceeds Vc, the shear reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35(C). 2.36 PERMISSIBLE BEARING STRESS Bearing stress in concrete on loaded area, ft, shall not exceed O.SOfc', but not to exceed 3350 psi. The minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 in. 2.37 SERVICEABLE REQUIREMENTS (A) Application For flexural members designed with reference to load factors and strengths by LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, stresses at service load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue in Article 2.38, and the requirements for distribution of reinforcement in Article 2.39. The requirements for deflection control in Article 2.40 shall also apply. (B) Service Load Stresses For investigation of service load stresses to satisfy the requirements of Articles 2.38 and 2.39, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be used and the assumptions given in Article 2.27 shall apply. Concrete Structures and Foundations 319 PRELIMINARY 2.38 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS (A) Concrete The maximiun compressive stress in the concrete shall not exceed 0.5 fc' at sections where stress reversals occur caused by live load plus impact at service load. This stress limit shall not apply to concrete deck slabs. (B) Reinforcement The range between a maximum and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load plus impact at service load shall not exceed that given by: f sr = 23.4 — 0.33 fm in where fsr = allowable range in ksi fm In = algebraic minimmn stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi Bends in primaiy reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range. 2.39 DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT Tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension. When the design yield strength, f,-, for tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi, cross sections of maximum positive and negative moment shall be so proportioned that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load, fs, in ksi, does not exceed the value computed by: f-= W '^"^ but fs shall not be greater than 0.5 fy, where A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension re- inforcing bars and having the same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches. When the main rein- forcement consists of several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area divided by the area of the largest bar used, de = thickness of concrete cover measured from the extreme tension fiber to the center of the bar located closest thereto, inches. The quantity z in Eq. (6-30) shall not exceed 170 kips per in. for members in moderate exposure conditions and 130 kips per in. for members in severe exposure conditions. Where memliers are exposed to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments, such as de-icer chemicals, the denseness and non-porosity of the protecting concrete should be considered, or other protection, such as a waterproof protecting system, should be provided in addition to satisfying Eq. (6-30). 2.40 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS (A) General Flexural members of bridge stiucturcs shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to hmit deflections or any deformations which may adversely affect the strength or serviceability of the structure at service load. 320 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association PRELIMINARY (B) Superstructure Depth Limitations The minimum thicknesses stipulated in Table 2.40 are recommended unless computation of deflection indicates that lesser thickness may be used without adverse efi^ects. Table 2.40 — Recommended MiNtMLTM Thickness for Constant Depth Members* Minimum Super structiu-e Type Thickness** (in feet) Bridge slabs with main reinforcement S + 10 parallel or perpendicular to traJBBc 20 but not less than 0.75 T-Girders Box-Girders S + 9 15 S + 10 17 ° When variable depth members are used, table values may be adjusted to account for change in relative stifEness of positive and negative moment sections. "° Recommended values for simple spans; continuous spans may be about 90 percent of thickness given. S ^span length as defined in Article 2.23(F), in feet. Report of Committee 7 — Timber Structures W. S. Stokely, Chairman J. A. GUSTAFSON, Vice Chairman J. W. Chambers, Secretary J. BUDZILENI J. M. Helm J. H. HuzY R. C. Moody H. R. Stokes B. J. King G. K. Clem M. J. Marlow R. E. Anderson W. L. Anderson T. E. Brassell F. H. Cramer (E) M. T- Crespo A. R. Dahlberg B. E. Daniels H. E. Bearing K. L. De Blois (E) D. J. Engle S. L. Goldberg D. C. Gould R. W. Gunther J. A. Hawley W. C. KiRKLAND D. I. Kjellman H. G. Kriegel L. R. Kltbacki R. E. Kuehner C. V. Lund (E) D. H. McKlBBEN D. C. Meisner C. H. Newlin W. A. Oliver N. I. PiNSON R. P. Rasho J. J. Ridgeway b. V. Sartore F. E. Schneider (E) G. N. Sells J. W. Storer R. W. Thompson, Jr. W. A. Thompson J. B. Werner N. E. Whitney, Jr. A. YOUHANAIE S. J. Zajchowski Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman, and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. As previously reported, the subcommittee has completed the details of decimalization and reorganization of Chapter 7. Publication awaits completion of current work in subcommittees working on Assigimients 2 and 3. 2. Grading Rules and Classification of Lumber for Railway use: Speci- fications for Structural Timber, Collaborating with Other Organiza- tions Interested. The work under this title was essentially completed some time ago; however, industry rule revisions have forced the recalculation of allow- able unit stresses for designs subject to railway loading. Tliis work has been progressed through certain of the species, but others are not complete. 3. Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles. Extensive revision of the Manual material under this title has been progressed to a near final point at tlie subcommittee level. It is now hoped that committee action can be completed in the coming year. 321 322 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association 5. Design of Structural Glued Laminated Wood Bridges and Trestles. Work has not progressed because of changes pending under Assign- ments 2 and 3. 7. Repeated Loading of Timber Structures. The matter of review of AAR Technical Center Report LT 342 remains incomplete. 8. Protection of Pile Cut-Offs; Protection of Piling Against Marine Organisms by Means Odier Than Preservatives. Contact with the committee men for tlie purpose of locating rail- roaders and others conversant with the problem met with only limited success. Other phases of the assignment are being progressed. 9. Study of In-Place Preservative Treatment of Timber Trestles. Work continues on the details of arranging to again determine the levels of preservative remaining in a treated area. Specimens from a bridge in-place treated not less than 15 years ago are to be con- sidered. 10. Non-Destructive Testing of Wood. Final report, presented as information page 322 Report on Assignment 10 Non-Destructive Testing of Wood M. J. Marlow (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Anderson, T. E. Brassell, B. E. Daniels, J. A. Hawley, D. I. Kjellman, R. E. Kuehner, N. I. Pinson, R. W. Thompson, W. A. Thompson, A. Youhanaie, J. W. Stoker. Your committee submits the following report as information. Due to the lack of research in the field, the coimnittee recommends tliat the subject be discontinued until such time as new products are available or existing methods are improved. The reader is directed to reports on this topic in the reports of Committee 7 contained in AREA Proceedings, Volumes 69, 67 and 65. This assigrmient involved itself with methods of gathering data for the evalua- tion of the structural capacity of wood bridge members in-place by non-destructive methods. An evaluation would require the determination of the section and the amount of section lost to decay. Internal decay not visible to the eye would neces- sarily have to be located and sized. The method of making these measurements would have to be economical and practical in a field environment. The following methods are considered as non-destructive testing methods: 1. Nuclear 2. X-Ray 3. Electrical Resistance 4. Sonics 5. Small Diameter Bore Hole 6. Sounding Timber Structures 323 The nuclear method was reported on in AREA Proceedings Volume 65, page 420. The method has not been accepted by the railroads or tlieir suppliers as a prac- tical method of locating and sizing internal voids. The X-Ray method has found acceptance in the inspection of utility poles. The emphasis, in diis instance, is on internal conditions at die ground line. This method has not been applied to railroad wood bridges. Electrical resistance detection of internal decay has found some limited accept- ance in detailed investigation of structural members considered to be of a high value from structural and cost of renewal standpoints. The method has not been applied to railroad wood bridges. In general, the above methods have characteristics which limit use in the field. Nuclear and X-Ray metliods use high-energy sources which must be shielded. Thus, the equipment tends to be bulky and heavy. Personnel must be protected and monitored and licenses by state agencies are often required. In the case of X-Ray, film must be developed and analyzed. Nuclear devices must be harnessed to counters and the results of the counts must be analyzed. Electrical resistance methods require extensive calibration, detailed instru- mentation and inspection, and expert analysis of the results. Sonic inspection of timbers has been under development for some time. The method overcomes many of the above objections, but their value in determining defect size remains to be shown. The reader is directed specifically to AREA Pro- ceedings Volume 69, page 401. For the most part, the primary method of field non-destructive testing of wood bridge members is sounding. The bridge inspector generally uses this method in conjunction with a visual inspection for irregularity of shape as his guide in evaluating soundness of the member. Small diameter bore holes may be used to supplement knowledge of a particular member. This combination of methods oflFers die advantages of being, for the most part, equipment independent in that the required tools are hand tools. The procedure does require extensive knowledge of the type of structure being inspected and considerable experience on the part of the inspector. The drilling of a pattern of small-diameter bore holes and measurement of the remaining sound wood can be used to make a detailed inspection of a structure. The method depends on the development of a bore hole pattern which adequately investigates the areas most apt to be in distress and which are critical to the assumed distribution of loads. Again, knowledge of tlie behavior of the structure and con- siderable experience are necessary to pertinent data gathering and thus accurate evaluation. Report of Committee 1^ — Roadway and Ballast N. E. Whitney, Jr., Chairman W. J. Sponseller, Vice Chairman H. D. Archdeacon, Secretary E. L. Robinson F. L. Peckover C. E. Webb F. H. McGuiGAN W. M. Dowdy R. L. Williams J. B. Farris R. D. Baldwin W. H. Stumm L. C. Alden A. G. Altschaeffl H. E. Bartlett C. W. Bean R. H. Beeder (E) R. J. Bennett C. R. Bergman J. R. Blacklock R. H. Bogle, Jr. L. Bowman E. W. Burkhardt CM. Burnette B. E. Buterbaugh R. M. Clementson D. H. Cook J. E. COSKY M. W. Cox R. P. Christman G. W. Deblin H. K. Eggleston G. E. Ellis W. P. ESHBAUGH (E) E. E. Farris T. J. Faucett G. C. Fenton J. S. Fllike F. B. Grant J. B. Haegler, Jr. R. T. Haggerstrom W. T. Hammond M. B. Hansen R. D. Hellweg T. J. Hernandez P. R. Houghton H. O. Ireland G. Jess B. J. Johnson D. N. Johnston J. A. Klihn H. W. Legro (E) W. S. Lovelace K. J. LUDWIG J. K. Lynch H. E. McQueen W. G. Murphy J. E. Newby F. P. Nichols, Jr. J. M. Nunn W. B. Peterson S. R. Pettit D. W. Reagan H. E. Richards C. R. Rone G. D. Santolla J. F. Scheumack P. J. Seidel W. M. Snow E. H. Steel F. A. TijAN, Jr. R. H. Uhrich J. L. ViCKERS S.S.Vinton (E) m. e. vosseller J. B. Wackenhut A. J. Wegmann (E) Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on tlie following subjects: 1. ROADBED. The subcommittee is investigating the use of filter fabrics with a view to developing a specification. The subcommittee also intends to look into the effect of heavier axle loads on roadbed and the general sub- ject of roadbed design. 2. BALLAST. The subcommittee has completely re-written the existing Manual material on the quality of ballast on pages 1-2-1 through 1-3-5. This was published in Part 1 of the November-December 1976, Bulletin 660. 325 326 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association 3. NATURAL WATERWAYS. The subcommittee has completely re-written the existing Manual material on prevention of erosion on pages 1-3-7 through 1-3-21. The existing material on pages 1-3-22 through 1-3-30 has been edited and re-approved in decimal format. This was pubUshed in Part 1 of the November-December 1976, Bulletin 660. 4. CULVERTS. No report. 5. PIPELINES. The subcommittee is still pursuing the subject of casings larger than 42 inch diameter and revision of casing thicknesses for E 80 Uve loading. 6. FENCES. The subcommittee is planning to look into security fences, and to update the existing Manual material. 7. SIGNS. Progress report presented as information page 326 8. TUNNELS. The subcommittee is keeping abreast of current developments con- cerning electrification and the resulting need for additional overhead clearance. 9. VEGETATION CONTROL. No report. The CoMMrrTEE on Roadway aj-td Ballast, N. E. Whitney, Jr., Chairman Report on Assignment 7 Signs B. E. BuTERBAUGH (chairman, subcommittee), all members of Committee 1. Your committee presents, as information only, the following proposed revision of the Manual material on Signs. Comment and discussion are invited, particularly as to the present use of danglers or telltales. Roadway and Ballast 327 Part 7 Signs 7.1 ROADWAY SIGNS 7.1.1 PROPERTY (a) Land monuments. Used to define limits of right-of-way. (b) "No Trespass" signs. Used at points where trespassing is especially imdesirable. 7.1.2 LOCATION (a) Mile Post. Used to afford a ready method of identification and reference to locahties. (b) Bridge or Culvert Markers. Used to identify location of bridges, trestles and culverts. (c) Alinement Markers. Used to define the correct position of tangents, ease- ment spirals and curves. (d) Grade Markers. Used to establish track elevations or superelevations. (e) Political Subdivision Signs. Used at intersections of the railway with state, county and municipal boundary lines. 7.1.3 MAINTENANCE OF WAY (a) Maintenance Limits Markers. Used to define the division of track owner- ship and maintenance by the railways or industry and interchange tracks between railways. (b) Section Limits Signs. Used to mark the beginning and ends of section foreman's territory. (c) Snow Plow Markers, Including Flanger Signs. Used to indicate obstruc- tion to snow equipment. Flanger signs warn the operator to lift the flangers. Wing markers indicate that the snow-plow wing must be closed because of close hori- zontal clearance. Both indications, if required at the same point, should preferably appear on one sign. 7.1.4 TRANSPORTATION (a) Speed Control Signs — Ixjth permanent and temporary. Used to warn enginemen to reduce speed of trains under permissible timetable speed due to alinement or other restrictions and including resume speed signs. Also, Stop Signs. (b) Wliistle Posts. Used in advance of highway grade crossings, stations, rail- Avay crossings at grade and at other points where locomotive whistles are required to be sounded by rules or law. (c) Location Markers. Used in advance of hazards such as railway crossings at grade, yard limits, drawbridges, junctions and stations. (d) Derail Signs. Used to indicate location of derailing device. 328 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association -36"- I NO CilEARANCEl ^6"— 1 5" 8" r . N C it E A R A N C E n r rO fO .J "to "ro =^' "fO ro -.A rrAt To fO ij4# "-kM .11 I, The lettering, f stroke and 3 in height is black on white enamel or reflex-reflecting material. The border is also black. 7.1.5 SAFETY (a) Close-Clearance Markers. Used at points of close horizontal or vertical clearance, or both, such as fixed structures and at points beyond which equipment will not clear at turnouts. A drawing of a recommended "No Clearance" sign is shown above. (b) Fire-Risk Signs. Used to warn employes and others of flammable mate- rial storage or underground passage of flammables. (c) High- Voltage Signs. Used to indicate to employes and otliers, the pres- ence of high-tension wires. Roadway and Ballast 329 NOTE: Signs for Higkwatj-Railwatj Grade Crossings included in Chapter 9 — Highways. 7.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN AND RULES FOR USE 7.2.1 SHAPES Distinguishing shapes of signs make recognition possible from distances too great to decipher legends on the signs. 7.2.2 DIMENSIONS Dimensions of various groups of signs may be diversified, as are shapes within limits determined by tlie legend. 7.2.3 GROUND Ground, the body of the sign, is best in sharpest contrast with the lettering. Black letters on white groimd show best, but of necessity, must be varied to con- form with location conditions. Grounds used on speed-control signs should con- form, in color, to indications used on diat particular railway for those purposes. 7.2.4 LEGENDS Legends on signs preferably are short, consisting of characters that are as large, as plain and as widely spaced as necessary for legibility at the required distance. Care should be observed to minimize the wording on signs. Proper spacing of characters is best determined by field tests. Bold-stroked letters are preferable. These same characteristics should be observed in using signs for night indications, as well as daytime, such as reflector types of various kinds. 7.2.5 PLACEMENT Placement includes erection in a chosen or prescribed location of the sign, post and artificial base, if any. Supports for signs commonly are posts tamped solidly in ground, frequently solidified by means of rammed stones, or set in concrete. In soft eartli, cleats of wood or metal projections fastened on the side at or near the butt, will tend to prevent vertical displacement. Backgrounds behind signs merit consideration. Topography may serve to im- prove background. To be most effective, signs should be prominently displayed. 7..3 ECONOMY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS 7.3.1 WOOD (a) Untreated wood has been the common material for roadway signs since the inception of railroad operation. Comparatively low first cost, ready workability, lightweight and plentiful supply are advantages. Wood is not easily damaged in transportation, takes paint well, and serves the purpose for which many signs are required. On the other hand, it must be painted frequently, if subject to decay, especially near the ground line. (b) Chemically treated wood is much more lasting at small increase in first cost and provides a good post on which to place signs. Wliile creosoted wood will 330 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association not receive oil paints well, wood pressure-treated with one of the several chemical solutions has been used successfully. 7.3.2 METAL (a) Scrap rail is largely used for sign and property posts and other markers. This material involves little, if any, out-of-pocket expense to the railroad. It has enough cross-sectional area to stand solidly when well placed, is stable in a concrete base and comparatively permanent. Low scrap value offsets the extravagance of weight and section, while availabihty is an added advantage. (b) Galvanized steel and painted steel posts are in common use, as these materials are readOy available and require ordy minimum maintenance. (c) Scrap plate for sign boards may be used with minimum initial out-of- pocket expense. (d) Sheet steel signs are frequently specified, usually bought furnished with special fastenings, sometimes painted or porcelain-enameled ready for placement. (e) Cast iron signs with raised letters are used on a few railroads. While ap- proaching permanency, first cost is high and a break usually means replacement. (f) Thin strip aluminum is used for flexible mountings, such as banding on telegraph poles. (g) Painted aluminum or aluminimi faced witli reflectorized materials are in common use for economy in maintenance. 7.3.3 FIBERGLASS Some roads are beginning to use fiberglass signs with moulded-in letters, for low maintenance signs. 7.3.4 CONCRETE (a) Concrete is recommended where a base is needed to support the sign post. (b) Reinforced concrete is a modern sign-and-post material, though it is not altogether suitable for members of restricted cross-sectional area, as water is likely to contact the reinforcement steel and cause deterioration and ultimate failure. The use of white sand and cement will reduce the paint cost. 7.3.5 PAINT Od paints are most commonly employed. Enamel signs last longer unless misuse causes cracks or breaks. They can be cleaned instead of painted. Raised or recessed letters are readily repainted, when necessary. Spare signs are sometimes used for replacements while the sign removed is repaired and repainted in the shop. Spot field repainting in some instances is comparatively expensive. Local conditions will govern. 7.4 SIGN SHAPES 7.4.1 Some roads are beginning to use blank aluminum and fiberglass symbol or silhouette signs in different shapes, with instructions issued as to their meaning, so as to lessen maintenance to an absolute minimum. Roadway and Ballast 331 7.5 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ONE, TWO, THREE AND FOUR TRACK OVERHEAD METAL WARNING AND METAL SIDE WARNINGS 7.5.1 GENERAL 7.5.1.1 Scope These specifications cover the design, materials and erection of metal overhead warnings for one, two, three and four tracks and metal side warnings, except as modified by laws or orders of appropriate governmental authority. 7.5.2 FOOTING 7.5.2.1 Concrete Footing Concrete for the footing shall be of the class designated by the engineer and conform with current AREA specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete. Part 1, Chapter 8. The footing course shall be carried down to a suitable foundation and where tliis is impracticable, the foundation shall be spread to sufficient dimension to carry the load. Backfilling aronund the foundation shall be thoroughly tamped and compacted. Anchor bolts shall be placed in their permanent position before filling the form with concrete. They shall conform in quality with the current ASTM Specifications, desig- nation A 7. 7.5.3 MATERIALS 7.5.3.1 Base Casting and Pipe Cap The base casting and pipe cap shall be made true to patteirn, free from flaws and excessive shrinkage; the size and shape to be as called for by the plans and shall conform with the current ASTM Specifications, designation A 48. 7.5.3.2 Iron Pipe & Fittings (Including Collars, Straps & Hanger Clamps) Iron pipe and fittings shall be used as the vertical pole to support the warning. The pipe shall be reasonably straight and free from injiurious defects. All burrs at the ends of the pipe shall be removed. The portion of pipe set in concrete foundation shall be free from grease and paint. All pipe joints shall be heated and shrunk so tlie inside diameter of the larger pipe will be equal to the outside diameter of the smaller pipe for a minimum distance of 18 in. The joints shall be suitably welded. For single-track and three and four-track overhead warnings, the poles shall be inclined from the track Ya in. per foot of height. The pipe and fittings shall conform in quality with the current ASTM Specifi- cations, designation A 72, or designation A 253. 7.5.3.3 Galvanized Steel Pipe and Fittings Galvanized steel pipe and fittings shall be used to support the telltales for single and double-track overhead warnings. This pipe shall be furnished under the seamless, or electric welded steel pipe, extra-strong classification, confonning with the current ASTM Specifications, designation A 120. The pipe shall be reasonably straight and free from injurious defects. All burrs at the ends of the pipe shall be removed. The zinc coating shall be free from injurious defects or excessive roughness. 332 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association _J 6 6 6 6 <^ i o 6 b "ffN >- ^ = s X k s I b k" o S o 6 O o b o ff- cr o is 00 1 b CO 0^ K- b >■ Z "6 b b ?r if 1 o 334 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association Roadway and Ballast 335 7.5.3.4 Steel Guy and Messenger Strand A %-m. steel guy and messenger strand shall be used to support the telltales for three and four-track overhead warnings. The strand shall be composed of six No. 8 Awg cylindrical copper-covered steel wires laid helically around a center wire of the same material and size, and shall confonn with the current ASTM Specifi- cations, designation B 8, Classification AA. 7.5.3.5 Galvanized Cable Clamps and Thimbles Three-bolt heavy-type cable clamps and M-in. thimbles shall be furnished for the horizontal guy and messenger strand. One-bolt cable clamps shall be furnished for the vertical guy and messenger strand. These clamps and thimbles shall conform with the current specifications appear- ing in Section l-A-20 of the Communications Section, AAR, Manual. 7.5.3.6 Hook and Eye Galvanized Turnbuckles The /8- by 6-in. galvanized steel hook-and-eye turnbuckles shall be of approved design and made so that at least 6 in. of slack can be drawn in. They shall be located as shown on the plan to pennit ready access to tliem. 7.5.3.7 Wood Lash Bars and Fingers Lash bars for overhead warnings shall be furnished to size, of 2-in. by 4-in. by 8-ft 6-in. treated oak or ash. Lash bars for side warnings shall be furnished to size, of 2 pieces 2 in. by 4 in. by 9 ft prebored and treated oak or ash. Fingers for side warnings shall be furnished to size, of 2 pieces /i in. by 3 in. by 2 ft preframed, bored and treated oak or ash. This material shall be sawn to the sizes specified on the plan and shall be free from defects that seriously impair the strength. 7.5.3.8 Telltales for Overhead Warnings Telltales shall be one of the following kinds: (a) Waterproof braided cotton ropes with copper or bronze tips, the ropes to be fastened to Jl-in. bronze rods which are suspended from an approved type of bronze hangers attached to tlie lash bar. The braided cotton ropes shall constitute the lower section of the telltale. (b) A series of No. 10 spring brass wires suspended from No. 8 gage brass screw eyes attached to the lash bar. Near the top the suspended wires shall be com- pletely looped once, all loops to be on die same horizontal plane. A horizontal wire shall be passed through all tlie loops, as shown on the plan, to prevent the suspended wires from fouling and keep them vertical. The bottom of telltales shall suspend 12)2 in. below the line of overhead ob- struction and shall be spaced 6 in. center to center, 17 per track. 7.5.3.9 Spring Finger for Side Warning Steel spring fingers, 1/16 in. by 2 ft 9 in., tightly wrapped on all sides witii an approved grade of canvas shall be furnished for side warnings. These fingers shall be cut to the size and shape called for on plan and fastened to the wood member of the warning with two 34-in. by 2-in. carriage bolts. Spring steel for fingers shall conform in quality to Grade A of the current ASTM Specifications, designation A 14. 336 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Each side warning shall consist of 9 horizontal fingers spaced 1 ft center to center and projecting 6 in. inside of the line of lateral obstruction. 7.5.3.10 Spring for Side Warning Brackets Six springs for each side warning shall be furnished for locations showTi on the plan, and fastened to the vertical lash bar with hasp and staples. They shall consist of 25 coils of 0.192-in. spring steel VA in. outside diameter, and shall conform in quality to Grade A of the current ASTM Specifications, designation A 14. 7.5.3.11 Bolts All bolts shall be furnished with nuts and washers of proper size and with standard threads. They shall be of the length and shape called for on the drawing and confonn in quality to tlie current ASTM Specifications, designation A 7. 7.5.3.12 Steel Bar A /2-in. by 2-in. by 1-ft 7-in. steel bar shall be fabricated and furnished with each spring bracket for side warnings according to tlie plan. Material in this bar shall conform in quality to the current ASTM Specifications, designation A 107. 7.5.4 ERECTIOiN When the pole is to be seated on top of the concrete footing, sufficient time shall be allowed the concrete to harden thoroughly before erecting the pole. Where the pole is to be imbedded in the concrete footing it shall be erected and temporarily guyed into exact position before the footing is cast. Where conditions make it necessary, vertical poles shall be permanently guyed. All swaging of pipe joints, including the swaging and leading of tlie pipe to the base castings, shall be performed in the shop, except those joints shown on plan for the one and two-track warning, which shall be swaged in the field. The lower hook-and-eye turnbuckle on three and four-track overhead warnings shall remain loose untU the hangers ha\'e been properly suspended from the upper cable and tlien drawn only tight enough to straighten the lower cable. Unnecessary strain on the lower cable shall be avoided. 7.5.5 PAINTING Pipe supports and castings shall be tlaoroughly cleaned and given one priming coat, or such other paint as may be specified. Except as herein noted, cleaning and painting shall be done in accordance with the requirements for shop painting of current AREA Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges, Part 1, Chapter 15. Roadway and Ballast 337 7.6 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ONE AND TWO-TRACK OVERHEAD WOOD WARNINGS AND WOOD SIDE WARNINGS 7.6.1 GENERAL 7.6.1.1 Scope These specifications cover the design, materials, and erection of wood overhead warnings for one and two tracks and wood side warnings, except as modified by laws or orders of appropriate govermnental autliority. 7.6.2 MATERIALS 7.6.2.1 Posts, Lash Bars, Fingers and Bracing Materials for posts, lash bars, fingers and braces shall be furnished for tire sizes shown on the plan and conform to current AREA Specifications for Structural Timbers, Part 1, Chapter 7. Materials for these members will be either untreated or treated with wood preservative as specified. When a wood preservative is speci- fied, the timber will be preframed and bored to tiie dimensions called for on the plan before treatment is applied. 7.6.2.2 Metal Materials The following metal materials and fastenings will conform to current AREA Specifications for One, Two, Three, and Four-Track Overhead Metal Warning and Metal Side Warning. (a) Telltales for overhead warnings. (b) Spring fingers for side warnings. (c) Springs for side warning brackets. (d) Bolts. (e) Steel bars. 7.6.3 ERECTION Posts for overhead warnings shall be inclined from the track /s in. per ft of height. Where conditions make it necessary, posts shall be permanently guyed. Posts for overhead warnings shall be set not less than 6 ft into ground and posts for side warnings not less than 4 ft 6 in. When necessary, post shall be tempo- rarily guyed or braced until backfilling into the posthole has been thoroughly tamped and compacted. In double-track territory, one warning shall be erected over each track. Bui. 601 338 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association This dimension based on dis+anre 'A'beincf &'-0". Where 'A' varies, this dimension musi be changed DIMENSION TABLE IC'Bolfs H X Y 22-0- y-r 3'3" 2r-9" 2r-c- 21-T 2I-0' 20-9- 20-e' 20-3- 20-cr 19-T I9'-£- I9-3" - I9-0- I8-9' 18-6" 18-3 l8'-0' l7'-9' s-r S-3- I7-&' I7-3- ITO- " ie-9- IC-C" l£'-3- IC-0- ..x: ( T 17 Tell+ales spaced G"CtoC No+es: Type of Tell+ales+o conform +0 those shown on plans for Metal Warnings. All bolts |'; threaded 4' machined and furnished with nut and 2cast iron OG Washers each. In double track territory' this type warning may be I used on each track. . — A lO'X 10" Post Posi to be Inclined ProtT? track ?" per one foot of Height. I^ T op of high rail OTOTAy7A77^WSWiWA77A77ir77W7W7T?= ELEVATION Scale © Dimension 'A' to be determined by local laws.rules or conditions. IO"XiO"Post rXG-Xr-C" Filler Blocks wVienG'XGl, Post Is used.- G'XC"X6-0'Post k|9 or Cross Tie 'i" 2-4-X£-X2-0-Cleats ® Scale in Ir7cbes n 24 3S 48 60 24 48 72 % 120 H 1—1 \—\ 1— 1 1— 1 1 AREIA ONE AND TWO TRACK OVERHEAD WARNING (WOOD) Roadway and Ballast 339 l3'-8" No-He ss+ban -8 Spaces® 12' = 8-0 H Track. Report of Committee 3 — Ties and Wood Preservation C. p. Bird, Chairman E. M. CUMMINGS, Vice Chairman J. E. HiNSON, Secretary F. J, Fudge J. T. Skehczak R. J. Shelton L. C. COLLISTER K. C. Edscorn G. H. Way J. W. A. Acer H. C. Archdeacon A. B. Baker W. W. Barnette R. S. Belcher (E) C. A. Burdell C. S. Burt (E) D. Carter M. J- Crespo D. L. Davies R. F. Dreitzler D. W. DiFalco I. A. Eaton D. E. Embling W. E. FUHR B. J. Gordon J. K. Gloster D. C. Gould R. D. Hellweg G. P. HUHLEIN R. G. Huston R. E. Kleist L. W. Kistler (E) M. A. Lane D. B. Mabry G. H. Nash R. B. Radkey H. E. Richardson R. H. Savage K. W. Schoeneberg G. D. Summers R. C. Weller F. M. Whitmore J. L. Williams E. L. Woods R. G. Zeitlow Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the foUowdng subjects: A. Recommendations for Further Study and Research. Brief progress report on study undertaken by Stanford Research Insti- tute under the direction of U.S. Department of Transportation, con- cerning the feasibihty of renovating wooden crossties, presented as information page 342 B. Revision of Manual. No report. 2. Cross and Switch Ties. No report. 3. Wood Preservatives. No report. 4. Preservative Treatment of Forest Products. No report. 5. Service Records of Forest Products. The annual tie renewal statistics as compiled by the Economics and Finance Department, AAR, were published as an advance report in Bulletin 659, September-October 1976. 341 342 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 6. Collaborate witli AAR Research Department and Other Organizations in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest. No report. The Committee on Ties and Wood Preservation, C. P. Bird, Cliairman. Report on Assignment A Recommendations for Further Study and Research Andrew V. Loomis of the Stanford Research Institute requested the assistance of Committee 3 to provide background information for their research program on the reno\'ation of wooden crossties. The impetus for this techno-economic study was pro\ided by the Federal Railroad Administration and the program is being carried out under the direction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The following is a brief summary of the tasks to be completed during this study: Task 1: Detennine the principal modes of wood crosstie deterioration. Various conditions such as terrain, environmental and traffic will also be considered in this task. Task 2: Detennine tlie severity of each failure condition requiring tie removal and the population of defective ties in each class of defect. For each condition requiring tie removal, detennine degree of repair necessary to return tie to main or branch line service. Task 3: Detennine types of orosstie deterioration it would technically and economically be feasible to renovate or repair. The remaining tasks in the program involve study of the state of the art of polymer or plastics impregnation and various processes suitable for the renovation of crossties in situ, track side, or in plant. They will also determine the feasibility of any applicable renovation process. To provide a quick estimate of the principal causes of tie removal the following circular was sent out to all railroad members of Committee 3. Principal Causes of Tie Removal Estimated Percentage Type of Failure Tie Failure bij Type 1. Broken tie — either under rail base or in center of tie % 2. Severely split tie — end to end % 3. Split tie end % 4. Severely plate cut % 5. Spike killed % 6. Decayed & cnished under tie plate area % 7. Damaged tie to depth of 2 inches or more due to derailment, dragging equipment or fire % 8. Any other causes not listed above — description % Ties and Wood Preservation 343 Based on the 17 responses received from Committee 3 and approximately 50 interviews conducted by Mr. Loomis, he has provided the following estimate of tie defect populations: Population (Percentage of Ties Tie Deterioration Mode Removed Annually) 1. Decay & wood deterioration (crushing) in tie plate area 43-44% 2. Plate cutting 18-20 3. Sphtting 16-18 4. Spike killing 14-16 5. Broken ties 2-3 6. Other (mechanical damage : i.e., derailments, rail anchor damage, etc.) 2-4 Using these percentages Mr. Loomis calculated the number of cross tie replace- ments necessitated by each defect class. The total renewal figure of 18,819,355 for the year 1974 was obtained from the Economics and Finance Department, Association of American RaOroads, and used in these calculations. Deterioration Mode Ties Replaced 1974 1. Decay and crushing 8,186,400 2. Plate cutting 3,575,700 3. Splitting 3,199,300 4. Spike killing 2,822,900 5. Broken ties 470,500 6. Other 564,600 Total 18,819,400 Several committee members have suggested that a more detailed study be undertaken based on properly structured statistical sampling techniques, employing actual field investigations of selected samples and it is hoped that this may become possible at some future date. Report of Committee 11 — Engineering Records and Property Accounting R. D. Igou, Chulnnon L. F. Grabowski, Vice Chairman G. R. Gallagher, Secretary M. F. McCoRCLE P. G. McDermott W. C. Kanan R. L. Ealy A. P. Hammond, Jr. C. J. McDonald C. E. Bynane J. G. KiRCHEN F. B. Baldwin (E) P. J. Beyer, Jr. J. M. Bourne R. H. Campbell T. R. Cressman "R. M. Davis C. R. Dolan W. V. Eller L. D. Farrar J. R. Geary C. C. Haire (E) M. J. Hebert P. J. Hendricksen E. H. Hofmann P. R. Holmes J. J. Hoolahan L. W. Howard N. J. Hull, Jr. G. F. Ingraham J. W. Kelly W. F. LiSZEWSKI R. W. Lively J. G. Maher J. L. Manthey J. C. MeKeague S. Miller, Jr. G. L. MucHOW R. F. Nelson J. J. O'Hara C. F. Olson H. L. Restall (E) J. M. Randles P. W. Roberts R. S. Shaw, Jr. V. E. Smith E. E. Strickland J. B. Styles T. A. Valacak H. R. Williams L. D. Wilson Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. No revisions to report. 2. Bibliography. Progress report, submitted as information page 346 3. Office and Drafting Practices. Final report on field reporting requirements for roadway completion report purposes, submitted as information page 346 4. Special Studies. No report. Metliods for preparing standard form AFE estimates by mechanized process under study. 5. Application of Data Processing. Progress report on mechanized track record submitted as information . page 348 6. Valuation and Depreciation. Progress report, submitted as information page 350 345 346 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 7. Revision and Interpretation of ICC Accounting Classifications. Progress report, submitted as information page 352 The Commfttee on Engineering Records and Property AccotrNxiNG, R. D. Igou, Chairman. Report on Assignment 2 Bibliography p. G. McDermott (chairman, subcommittee), P. J. Beyer, Jr., J. R. Chessman, C. R. DoLAN, L. D. Farrar, A. P. Hammond, R. D. Igou, J. L. Manthey, J. J. O'Hara, E. E. Strickland, T. A. Valacak, L. Wilson. Your committee submits the following report of progress, presenting additional references. Modern Office Procedures, August 1975, pages 46-48, "A Microfilm System that Shrinks Retrieval Time and Storage." Engineering News-Record, March 1976, pages 6.3-65, "ENR Indexes Gained Over 8% Last Year." Reprographics, Noxember 1975, pages 20-23, "County Tax Map Costs Reduced With Electrostatic Printer Techniques." The Office, January 1976, page 79, "An Explanation of Railroad Accounting." Harvard Business Review, March-April 1976, pages 58-67, "Inflation Account- ing — The Great Controversy." Business Week, June 1976, pages 52-60, "Focus on Balance Sheet Reform." Forbes, March 1976, pages 92-93, "Waist Deep in Big Muddy." Progressive Railroading, August 1976, page 49, "The Case for Betterment Accounting." Report on Assignment 3 Office and Drafting Practices W. C. Kanan (chairman, subcommittee), P. J. Beyer, Jr., J. M. Bourne, R. H. Campbell, P. J. Hendricksen, J. J. Hoolahan, J. W. Kelly, J. G. Kirchen, R. W. Lrs'ELY, J. L. Manthey, M. F. McCorcle, G. L. Muchow, J. M. Handles, V. E. Smith. FIELD REPORTING REQUIREMENTS FOR ROADWAY COMPLETION REPORT PURPOSES This is a final report, presented as information, based on a questionnaire sub- mitted to each railroad member of Committee 11 reciuesting information on their methods of obtaining AFE field information on completed roadway projects which resulted in replies from 15 railroads. Analysis of the repHes indicate the methods used and the forms for reporting field construction changes vary for each railroad. Engineering Records and Property Accounting 347 In order to prepare a Roadway Completion Report it is essential that a Final Construction Report be prepared for each Authority for Expenditure project showing tlie detail of the construction. The location and description of each phase of the work should be depicted on forms to suit each railroad's requirements. This information supplemented with maps and drawings for each building, track or group of tracks, bridge or similar subdivision will answer all ordinary purposes. The purpose of the Field Report is to supply information which ordinarily is not contained in the Accounting Department abstract or Statement of Charges for each AFE. To prepare and maintain a roadway property record it is necessary to reconcile the material quantities and cost information gathered by the Accounting Department with information gathered in the field after construction has been completed. The Roadway Completion Report prepared from tlie field report with accounting data will reflect the actual unit quantities and costs of facilities charged to and/or retired from additions and betterments. On most railroads it is the responsibility of the division engineers to assemble accurate and reliable basic data covering work performed. Signal, communications and mechanical change data are normally furnished by personnel within their area of responsibility. It is important that officers in charge of valuation and property accounting records make sure that field men and others have a clear understanding and working knowledge of the requirements to satisfy Interstate Commerce Commission reporting for additions and bettemients and, more important, that the Corporate Property Record accurately reflect the units and dollars in the Investment Accounts. The Property Record is die source for managerial information and various studies for many purposes. Two railroads reported the issuance to their field personnel, of very detailed instructions on field reporting as a Working Memorandum or Engineering Manual to serve as a ready reference for die experienced employee or as instructions to the less experienced. All railroads indicated they required "as constructed" inventories and "as built" plans on roadway AFE projects. The procedures used to obtain "as built" information from the engineering and construction forces is dependent upon tlie organizational set-up on each individual railroad. The variation in procedures reflects tlie accounting system in use by each railroad from a manual posting of accounts by units and dollars to a computer production of the accounts by units and dollars. A computer-generated tabulation of units and dollars, by accounts, that flow to tlie AFE would certainly facilitate the final analysis of the charges versus tlie "as constructed" field inventory for the iireparation of the Roadway Completion Reports by the Property Accounting or Engineering Road Section of each railroad. Conclusion: The field report supplements the accounting charges for labor and material and facilitates adjustments of the accounts to reflect tiie as constructed addition, betterment, relocation or retirement and enables the preparation of the Roadway Completion Report which is the basic record of the railroad's capital account. 348 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 5 Application of Data Processing A. P. Hammond, Jr. (co-chairman. Accounting Phases), C. J. McDonald (co- chairman. Engineering Phases), C. E. Bynane, R. H. Campbell, C. R. Dolan, R. Ealy, W. V. Eller, G. R. Gallagher, /. G. Kirchen, W. F. Liszewski, J. B. Styles, H. R. Willl\ms. MECHANIZED TRACK RECORD As a result of a questionnaire circulated to all committee members, the first code sheet of the mechanized track record has been designed (shown on next page). The metliod used to generate this code sheet was to consolidate the responses from the various members and excluding only those that were either a duplication or were felt to be unique requirements for only one carrier. The philosophy of the location description is to enable the data base to be inquired upon by die following methods: (a) A station can be requested. (b) A mile post requested. (c) Station to station. (d) Mile post to mile post. (e) Geographical locations (valuation section, railroad, station, division or county ) . (f) A route can be selected which would enable the reports to be generated for all accounts by this route inquiry. Engineering Records and Property Accounting 349 s III IC l> o T ' o s ; ■ ■ : to UJ Q o 1 a T at « • ■ ■ ] , ■ ■ ; ■ ■ . . ' I— < o _) 1 ' , ,' . ^ J J : ■ 1 ; a " ^ ^ [ ^ • • o 7 J . • > 7 1 \ • aitic T J ^ « « 1 T ^s : 3023 - — ^ —1 —1 — — — — ^1 _. 1 ^- -■ ^-1 ^ L_-r_ ^ .-I ^ — — 350 Bulletin 661 — American Railway En gineering Association Report on Assignment 6 Valuation and Depreciation C. E. Bynane (chairman, subcommittee), J. R. Chessman, W. V. Eller, G. R. Gallagher, L. F. Grabowski, P. J. Hendricksen, E. H. Hofmann, P. R. Holmes, N. J. Hull, Jr., R. D. Igou, J. G. Maker, P. G. McDermott, C. J. McDonald, S. Miller, Jr., R. F. Nelson, V. E. Smith, J. B. Styles, H. R. Williams. (A) CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CONNECTION WITH REGULATORY BODIES AND COURTS ICC Bureau of Accounts During tlie year ending June 30, 1976, the Commission continued its five-year cyclical review of equipment depreciation and the Accounting and Valuation Board issued 18 railroad equipment depreciation orders. Depreciation analyses of road property accounts for 20 Class I railroads were completed during the year ending June 30, 1976, and appropriate road property depreciation orders were issued. In the future, it is intended that both roadway and equipment depreciation studies will be concurrently requested from carriers, and probably on a three-year cycle. There appears to be a possibility that the depreciation analysis data banks might be updated annually. Whether this would be voluntary or mandatory is not yet known. As information, it should be noted that the ICC, including the Bureau of Ac- counts, is now on a fiscal year ending October 1. Congress of the United States The enactment by the Ninety-Fourth Congress of Public Law 94-210, S. 2718, February 5, 1976, and known as die Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 (the 4R Act) is probably the most comprehensive piece of railroad legislation ever enacted by the Congress. We are all affected and depending on our areas of interest, a review of Sections of the Act involving at least those areas is a must. One of the provisions of the act which will impact all of us is that requirement calling for a revision of the Uniform System of Accounts for railroads, including a restructuring of Operating Expense Accounts. This requirement resulted in tlie Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) issuing a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Order (NPR) (49 CFR 1201, 1241, and 1243) served August 2, 1976. The ICC proposal for revision and restructuring is spelled out in great detail and if implemented will put a severe strain on all railroads and certainly will deeply involve valuation, engineering and accounting personnel. The NPR also presents the Depart- ment of Transportation's (DOT) proposed matiix of operating expenses — AppendLx C as well as the Association of American Railroads (AAR) proposed Railway Oper- ating Matrix — Appendix D. The AAR proposal was developed by a task force of railroad accountants and cost analysts assigned to work with the ICC staff in an effort to draft a mutually acceptable revised chart of accounts. An inspection of the NPR will indicate just how far apart AAR and ICC presently stand. Internal Revenue Service The Tax Reform Act of 1976 has several provisions of interest and help to tax- paying railroads. Engineering Records and Property Accounting 351 Sections 1701 (b) and 1703 of the Act amending Code Section 46 (a) provides tor an alternati\'e maximum limitation of Investment Credit for railroads. The present maximum limitation of the credit is 50% of the tax liability in excess of $25,000. For 1977 and 1978, the limitation is 100% of the above excess, 90% in 1979, and dropping by 10% each year from 1979 through 1983. In 1983, the general limitation applies once more. Section 802 amending Code Section 46 (a) and (b) provides that investment credits are to be used up on a first-in, first-out basis. That is, the oldest credits are to be used first. This minimizes the effect (for 1976 and later years) of many tax- payers losing benefit of expiring investment credits attributable to prior years. Section 1702 adding new Code Section 185 (d) and (e) provides for the 50- year amortization of the cost of pre- 1969 railroad grading and tunnel bore acquisitions. Section 1701 adding Code Section 263 (g) permits railroads to currently deduct their costs of acquiring and installing replacement ties of any material, and fastenings related to such ties, effective for amounts paid or incurred after 1975. This apparently resolves the betterment problems associated with concrete and/or other than wood ties. Securities and Exchange Commission Rule 3.17 of Regulation S-X, efFecti\'e for years ending on or after December 25, 1976, calls for die disclosure of replacement cost data where the total of inven- tories and gross property, plant and equipment (before deducting accumulated depreciation, depletion and amortization) as shown in the consolidated balance sheet at tire beginning of tlie year, is $100 miUion or more. Data required to be disclosed include : 1. Current replacement cost of inventories at each fiscal year end for which a balance sheet is required. 2. Gross (new) and depreciated replacement cost of productive capacity on hand at end of each fiscal year for which a balance sheet is required. 4. Depreciation, depletion and amortization expense on a replacement cost basis for the t\A'o most recent fiscal years. Replacement cost is defined as the lowest amount which would have to be paid in the normal course of business to obtain a new asset of equivalent operating or productive capacity. Productive capacity is defined as a measurement of a com- pany's ability to produce and distribute. 352 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 7 Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting Classifications J. G. KiRCHEN (chainnan, subcommittee), J. M. Boubne, R. M. Davis, J. R. Geary, N. J. Hull, Jr., G. F. Ingraham, J. W. Kelly, W. F. Liszewski, J. G. Maker, P. G. McDermott, J. McKeaglte, S. Miller, Jr., P. W. Roberts, T. A. Valacak. This is a progress report, presented as information, on changes affecting engi- neering records and property accounting only. ICC Order No. 36125 with a service date of November 10, 1975, Reporting Extraordinary, Unusual or Infrequently Occurring Events and Transactions; Prior Period Adjustments; the Effects of Disposal of a Segment of a Business, establishes more definitive criteria and accounting rules for extraordinary and prior period adjustment transactions, specifies reporting requirements for the disposal of a seg- ment of business and provides guidelines for determining materiality. These include definitions for "segment of business" and "measurement and disposal dates" and changes to Instructions l-2(d), 2-8(c), and 6-2(a) for reporting the operating results and gain or loss on disposal of a segment of business. Accounts affected are: (Add) 555, 560, 562, 592 and 601.5; (Delete) 580, (Revised) 590, 591, 723 and 786. EfiFective January 1, 1976. ICC Order No. 36137 with a service date of November 5, 1975, Revision of Rules on Classification of Carriers increases the minimum railway operating revenue from $5 to $10 million for Class I carriers and establishes time period for quaHfying and changing classifications. Amends Instruction 1-1 of Part 1201 and 1240.1. Effective Januaiy 1, 1976. ICC Order No. 36176 with a service date of March 5, 1976, Disclosure of Non- Capitalized Lease Commitments by Lessees, requires carriers to disclose information to permit determinating and evaluating the extent to which its property is leased, the amount of long tenn lease commitments, the present value of non-capitalized leases and tlie effect on net income had the leases been capitalized. Effective March 5, 1976. ICC Order No. 36210 with service date of July 9, 1976, Uniform Systems of Accounts, Destruction of Records, Records and Reports further amends ICC Order No. 36210 with service date of October 29, 1975, revising record retention require- ments as provided in Parts 1220-1239 of 49 CFR. The amendment modifies Section 1220.3 Index of Records and eliminates tiie need for the Index. Items 1 and 2 (Ledgers and Journals) under Category C (Financial and Accounting) are amended and an Item 7 is added to Category K (Tariffs and Rates). Effective August 9, 1976. ICC Order No. 36284 with a service date of February 27, 1976, Classification of Short-Term Obligations Expected to be Refinanced, essentially establi.shes criteria to permit current liabilities to be properly represented on the balance sheet by clarifying current liabilities as those whose liquidation is reasonably expected to require the use of existing resources classified as current assets, or tlie creation of other current liabilities. Any obligation tliat has a maturity date within one >'car, but is to be refinanced on a long-term basis would not be classified as current. Accounts affected: 751, 764, 765 and 766. Effective January 1, 1976. Engineering Records and Property Accounting 353 Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Order No. 36366 with a service date of June 8, 1976. ( Subsequently a second Notice was issued August 26, 1976. ) Branch Line Accounting System proposes that tlie existing Uniform System of Accounts for Railroads, Part 1201, be redesignated as sub-part A (Sections 1201.1 through 1201.89) and adding the Branch Line Accounting System as sub-part B (Sections 1201.90 through 1201.94) to comply with requirements for the annual reporting of these data as provided for by the Regional Rail Reorganization Act of 1973 and the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 for rail lines and segments potentially subject to abandonment. This regulation will require the collec- tion and pubhcation of information necessary to determine accin-ately the revenues attributable, avoidable costs, and service units of light-density lines scheduled for abandonment under Parts 1121 and 1125 of the Regulations. Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Order No. 36367 with a service date of August 2, 1976, Revision to tlie Uniform System of Accounts for Railroads provides for revising revenue accounts to reclassify charges against revenues which should be operating expenses, restructuring operating expense accounts into a "matrix format," clarifying ambiguous instructions, definitions and texts of accounts and updating terms in accord witli current accounting usage. Property accounts affected include elimination of the following primary road accounts: 2/2 (to be account 4), account 38 (balances to be apportioned to operating expenses over 5-year period), account 43 (balances to be allocated to otlier road property accounts on equitable basis) and account 71 (balances to be transferred to Balance Sheet account 771). A new account 15 General Office Buildings has been added and appropriate transfers would be made from account 16 which will be redesignated Station Buildings (only). Account 20 will be redesignated Car Shops (appropriate transfers would be made to new account 21 Locomotive Shops and Enginehouses ) . Grain Elevator balances from existing account 21 to be transferred to account 35. Report of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment D, E. Crawford, Chairman Dave Schulz, Vice Chairman F. H. Smith W. A. MacDonald J, P. Zollman V. R. Erquiaga R. L. Matthews M. L. Stone P. V. Divine E. T. Daley W. J. GOTTSABEND L. J. Calloway W. F. COGDILL L. E. Conner R. E. Dove R. P. Drew J. M. Driehuis H. F. Dully J. O. Elliott E. H. Fisher W. D. Gilbert O. T. Harmon, Jr. W. H. Holt S. R. Horn N. W. Hutchison (E) C. Q. Jeffords D. C. Johnson R. M. Johnson C. F. King M. E. Kerns (E) W. E. Kropp (E) H. F. Longhelt C. E. McEntee A. E. MoRRiss, Jr. R. E. MURDOCK T. J. O'Donnell C. H. Olds C. A. Peebles J. R. Pollard, Jr. A. G. Pronovost J. E. Quirk R. S. Radspinner D. F. Richardson B. F. RiEGEL T. R. RiGSBY J. W. Risk (E) r. t. ruckman D. R. Schenck S. Slobedsky J. R. Smith, Jr. J. T. Smith S. E. Tracy (E) C. R. Turner N. White J. W. Winger Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman and vice chairman, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on tlie following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. 1. Reliability engineering as applicable to work equipment design and manufacture. No report. 2. Machine design — Hydraulic and electrical systems. No report. 3. Machine design — Engines. Progress report, presented as information page 356 4. Disposal of used equipment and surplus parts. No report. 5. Machine design — Bearings, suspension, frame and brakes. Final report, presented as information page 358 355 356 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 6. Study design of cars used by maintenance of way department, such as ballast cars, equipment transport, tie cars, rail cars, etc. No report. 7. Temperature compensated stress-adjustment equipment for use during or after laying CWR, collaborating as necessary or desirable with Committee 4. No report. 8. Applied metallurgy — Maintenance of way work equipment. No report. 9. Data processing for work equipment evaluation, information and con- trol, collaborating as necessary or desirable with Committee 32. No report. The Committee on Maintenance of Way Work Equipment, D. E. Crawford, Chairman. Report on Assignment 3 Machine Design — Engines V. R. Erqtjiaga (chairman, subcommittee), D. E. Crawford, E. T. Daley, W. J. Gottsabend, W. a. MacDonald, R. L. Matthews, F. H. Smith, C. R. TtmNER, Your committee presented a basic discussion of engines and engine selection in Bulletin 651, January-February 1975. The following report regarding environmental control impact on engine design is presented as additional information. The serious problems of air pollution and noise levels continue to be a major concern of engine manufacturers. Tight regulations, especially in California, are placing more and more engines in the "dirty" category. The situation is not encour- aging for consumer or manufacturer. As a general rule, the more efficient an engine is, the more efficiency it will lose when noise and emissions control devices are installed. Advanced designs rely on a predetermined fuel-air ratio. When tiiis ratio is upset by a reduction in fuel in order to comply with emissions regulations, engine efficiency is reduced. Expensive refinements made by the manufactm-er and paid for by the consumer may be of little value. For example, a leading manufacturer equipped an engine with dual overhead cams in order to increase efficiency by open- ing and closing the valves more quickly. The engine developed 400 hp. To meet emissions regulations, the fuel-air ratio was reduced and horsepower fell to 360. Thus, advanced design resulted in no increase in efficiency since a conventional engine with pushrod valve actuation would develop comparable horsepower. Simi- larly, the expensive precombustion chamber design is threatened because its potential cannot be realized. Smaller 4-in. to 5-in. bore diesels of the tyi^e used by the trucking industry have been cleaned up at the expense of the consmner. Another attack on tlie air pollution problem is use of a larger camshaft to obtain a cam lobe large enough to prolong fuel injection. Thus, fuel injected in smaller amounts over a longer time period permits a leaner fuel-air ratio. This Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 357 manufacturer also redesigned the water passages in the engine coohng system in order to keep restrictions to flow to a minimum. He also increased the size of the radiator and cooling system. Tliis permitted use of a smaller fan and reduced the horsepower required to turn it from 12 to 6 on a 350-hp engine. Use of the small fan also reduced the noise level. In tliis case, the redesign was needed and the engine now provides 6 percent better fuel economy. There is serious concern for the future of the small two-cycle diesel engines so widely used in railway maintenance equipment. Prices are increasing rapidly and most of tliese engines have been difficult or expensive to clean up. Most of the economical, efficient and obvious changes have been made; it now appears that compliance with stricter standards will require a rollback in efficiency. There is also the distinct possibility that some of these engines will be discontinued. Larger two- cycle engines are making a strong play in trucking and other fields and are holding their own as far as meeting regulations is concerned; using turbochargers, after coolers, thermo-fans and other modifications. Some interesting data are being developed regarding engine size required for a given application. Some truck fleet operators are using smaller engines and gearing the vehicles to naiTowly limit RPM's for maximum torque. This reduces original new engine cost and improves fuel economy. It may be that railway maintenance equipment should use engines of no more horsepower than required to handle the job efficiently after considering derating due to altitude and condition of the engine toward the end of the normal major overhaul cycle. It is possible tliat some designers and users are "horsepower happy." We have limited our discussion to the diesel engine; however, the gasoline engine is in still more serious trouble. Generally speaking, it is much harder to clean up and the loss of horsepower in the process is much greater. The present trend continues to be less horsepower per pound of iron, more cost to the consumer and an ever-increasing possibility that some of our most needed engines may be discontinued. 358 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 5 Machine Design — Bearings, Suspension, Frame and Brakes (Including Emergency Brakes) D. E. Crawford (chairman, subcommittee), L. J. Calloway, R. P. Drew, V. R. Erquiaga, C. Q. Jeffords, W. A. MacDonald, R. L. Matthews, C. A. Peebles, J. R. Pollard, Jr., D. R. Schenck, J. P. Zollman. This report, submitted as information, deals widi additional features of the con- struction style shown in the AREA "Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications" adopted in 1972. (Manual p. 27-2-26).* Axle bearing failures interrupt production, sometimes damage axles or other components, and occasionally immobilize a machine with delays to trains. Premature failure of axle bearings may be caused by derailments. Your committee recommends: ( 1 ) Improved suspensions to minimize the likeliliood of deraihnents, (2) Cuards to protect components from striking the rail in the event of a derailment, and (3) The specification of longer lasting bearings. (Fig. 1 illustrates one design of suspension and Fig. 2 shows one design of derail protection guards). From a practical standpoint, bearing mounting pads cannot be manufactured and maintained exactly in a common plane. Fig. 3 illustrates, by exaggerated views, the shaft bending that takes place when more than two bearings are used on an axle, or when pairs of conventional bearings are mounted to frames with angular or offset misalignment. It also shows how self-aligning bearings compensate for minor variations when used in pairs. Bearings are rated by load, speed, and life. These are inter-related in that doubling the speed halves the life, and doubling tlie load results in one-eightli life. Most bearing manufacturers use the system of life rating that predicts that only 10% of a group of bearings will fail in a stated lengtli of time for a given load and speed. The system is known, variously, as "Minimum Life," "B-10 Life," or "L-10 Life." Ten percent failure implies 90% survival and 90% reliability. Since failure of any one of four axle bearings can put a machine out of service, the overall reliability is about 64%. It is generally suggested in texts that a B-10 Life of 20,000 hours should be used for machines which work eight hours per day where breakdowns would affect production. The solid line of Fig. 4 shows the life experience of a group of identical bearings at a given load and speed, with the point corresponding to 20,000 hours B-10 Life encircled. A few bearing manufacturers still use a system of rating, called "Average Life," based on 50% failure (or 50% survival). Four interdependent bearings of 50% indi- vidual reliability would have an overall reliability of only 6.25%. The triangle on " Certain machines use automotive-type running gear, which is an area for future study. The standards of the Society of Automotive Engineers for axie components are presently limited to nomenclature. Nominal axle capacity ratings should be decreased when automotive axles are used with steel wheels rather than pneumatic tires. Large machines, such as locomotive cranes, employ standards of the Mechanical Division, AAR. Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 359 FIG. I. SPRING SUSPENSION tlie solid cur\e of Fig. 4, at 505'c and 80,000 hours, indicates tliat an Average Life four times as great as the B-10 Life must be specified to obtain the same bearing. The dotted hne sliows tlie experience tliat could be expected from a bearing selected inadvertently from a catalog using Average Life ratings. A wrong choice of pillow block housing thickness and material can defeat the best bearing in our type of application, where impact is a factor. Certain pillow blocks employ locking collets which frequently adhere to the axle so thoroughly that in the event of a failure to one bearing, both bearings and the axle must be renewed. It is preferable to use tubular spacers bet\veen wheels and pillow blocks to keep the wheels in tram. The suspension shown in Fig. 1 has coil springs compressed to about 60% of their free lengths by the static weight of the machine and pre\ented from further compression by substantial metal blocks. Allowing greater compression of the springs would shorten their lives by fatigue and great care would be required in spring selection to avoid harmonic vibrations. This design permits any wheel to stay on the rail in tlie condition of a low joint that would cause a rigid frame to lift one wheel from the rail. The particular design has been used to success with outboard 360 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association o q: < o z o o o Q. < UJ Q cvi d Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 361 \dPi Aifc z o < CD 1 >- m Q UJ 1- O u m Q UJ o cr 1 UJ q: o o . CC 8 ^ h- o 1 ^ z z 1 t- ± UJ 7^ 1 z q: Z ijj O ID z m o < en z 1 < z 1 (/) z ^^ 1 2 2 CC _J 1 _J < < 1 \- < _J 1 UJ ZD U. O -I Z UJ < (/) d m en u_ U 1 U. UJ o en ui a. < en a z < to z o I- < o -J 0. < o z CE < UI 03 ro ID u. pp p p p < I CO (O O UJ z z q: -> 25 m ot 5 UJ z UJ < m X ^- H o UJ z tr z o < 2 o o < (O a: < -I 3 O z < CD P In n p o UJ CO o o 362 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association ONIAIAdnS iN30y3d Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 363 bearings, but it should be adaptable to the more prevalent construction of roadway machines using inboard bearings. Frames for machines are subject to many variations in weight distribution so specific recommendations for structural sections would be difficult to achieve. Provision of bumpers should be considered where the function of tlie machine does not prevent their use. As a suggestion, several channels might be used to protect against collision with couplers of railroad cars at a minimum of 32 in. above top of rail, and couplers of machines at 14 in. center line height above top of rail. It is desirable that materials be used tiiat are easily repaired by conventional electric welding. Conservative "limit" design is preferred to "plastic" design which might lead to premature fatigue failure. Replaceable derail protection guards, previously mentioned, are recommended as bolt-on attachments to the frame. Care nuist be exercised in their design to provide adequate clearance for machines that must pass over car retarders, and not to present a hazard to bystanders or persons working near the machine. Where it is intended to repeatedly tow other machines, towing eyes may be connected with a tubular member or braced to the main frame, to good advantage. Brakes are vital to the operation of roadway machines. Emergency brakes are at least equally as important. It is recommended that: "Specifications for On-Track Roadway Machines and Work Equipment" (Adopted 1966) be amended to state, if brakes are pneumatic or hydraulic in operation, a separate and independent mechanical linkage for emergency brake operation shall be provided. This independent system shall he capable of rapid application, shall be capable of sliding all wheels on dry sanded rail, and shall be capable of repetitive operation without failure or permanent deformation of parts. A rule of thumb value of 40% coefficient of friction approximates ideal dry sanded rail conditions and is frequently used to compute braking power to assure that components have adequate strength. Several properties have specifications that prohibit or discourage braking systems which employ the power train. Fail-safe braking systems employing power-released and spring-applied brakes are becoming increasingly prevalent. At least one road specifies a system in which a control must be manually held to deactivate the emergency springs, by power, in the event that a machine with fail-safe brakes must be moved. This prevents in- advertently leaving the springs mechanically deactivated. Where a spring suspension system ( like the one sho\vn in Fig. 1 ) is used, the braking apparatus should be mounted to the bearing boxing, so the suspension spring action does not affect braking effectiveness. It should be pointed out that an external brake shoe tliat acts vertically (like that illustrated in the side view of Fig. 2) adds no bending stress to the axle. New products which entirely eliminate the need for cutting keyways in axles are a subject for investigation. Report of Committee 28 — Clearances L. ScHMiTZ, Chairman L. R. Beattie, Vice Chairman J. E. Beran, Secretary G. E. Henry R, R. Snyder J. C. HOBBS D. W. LaPorte G. P. Huhlein E. E. Kessler L. R. HuRD M. L. Power C. F. Intlekofer F. A. SvEC E. W. Jantz G. W, Martyn R. G. Klouda W. J. Trezise A. J. KOZAK P. T. Sarris D. J. Moody E. Berendt A. E. Mooney E. S. BiRKENWALD (E) J. R. Moore A. V. BODNAR W. E. MORGUS E. C. Castellanos F. B. Persels R. P. Christman C. E. Peterson (E) J. E. COSKY W. P. SiLCOX J. A. Crawford E. C. Smith b. D. Cunningham C. H. Stephenson S. M. Dahl (E) J. E. Teall M. E. Dust M. Van Kuiken C. W. Farrell M. E. Vosseller J. F. Ferreira Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. No repoxt. 1. Investigate the Practicability of Using Disposable Placards or Other Appropriate Marking for Identifying Shipments of Excessive Dimensions and/or Weight. A suggested common placard for identifying excessive dimension or weight shipments has been developed and is being submitted to the Mechanical Division, AAR, for their comments and/or approval before receiving a final vote of approval by Committee 28. 2. Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements of the Various States. No significant changes to state clearance laws have been reported to require a change in the chart now shown in the Manual. 3. Investigate New Methods and Development of Equipment for Re- cording Measurements of Clearance of Structures Along Right-of-Way and Overall Dimensions of Cars and Loads. Final report, submitted as information . 365 page 367 366 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 4. Restudy and Possibly Revise "Clearance Diagrams — Fixed Obstructions" now in the Manual. A larger suggested clearance outline is being developed to accommo- date the increasing number of large oversized shipments now being handled by the railroads. An additional diagram showing suggested minimum clearance for electrified routes is also being developed. 3. Revise "Suggested Methods of Presenting Published Clearances" now in the Manual. A questionnaire submitted to all subscribers to the Railway Line Clear- ances publication asking what they would require or desire to see in published clearances is now being evaluated. This questionnaire is a major step in trying to make clearance tabulations now published by the railroads as useful and easily understood as possible. 6. Study tlie Effects of Shipment Center of Gravity in Relation to Train Speed and Track Curvature. Current methods of handling high center of gravity loads by tlie various railroads, as well as previous AAR tests on this subject are now being studied in an effort to provide a recommended common method for all to use. 7. Liaison Committee to Work With AAR Management Systems Depart- ment in Implementation of Umler Phase 11 to Include Needed Car Characteristics Data for Use in the Official Railway Equipment Register. Xo report. 8. Restudy of Clearance Allowances for Horizontal Movement of Passenger Cars Due to Lateral Play, Wear and Spring Deflection. No report. 9. Investigate tlie Possibility of Including the Truck Center Dimension of All Cars in the Official Railway Equipment Register, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with tlie Operating-Transportation Division, AAR. Final report, presented as information page 368 The Committee on Clearances, L. ScMMiTZ, Chairman. Clearance 367 Report on Assignment 3 Investigate New Methods and Development of Equip- ment for Recording Measurements of Clearances of Structures Along Right-of-Way and Overall Dimensions of Cars and Loads W. S. TusTiN (chairman, subcommittee), E. Berendt, C. W. Farrell, G. P. HuHLEiN, R. G. Klouda, W. E. Morgus, R. R. Snyder. Your committee presents as infonnation the results of a survey of 20 railroads covering the following questions. "Do you now have, or are you developing, a computer program for clearances on your railroad?" Five railroads have a computer program and of the other fifteen, three indicated they are developing a program. "By what method do you measure clearances in the field?" Three basic methods were in use, as follows: 1. Eleven railroads reported obtaining clearances manually by a survey party using ordinary surveying equipment such as a telescoping fiberglass rod which measures up to 25 ft, plumb bobs, rules and stringlines. 2. Six railroads also used a feeler type of clearance frame mounted on a car or highway-railway truck. These frames are equipped with extendable arms which are calibrated or measurable and bend back to hold or outline the shape of an obstruction as they pass through. This equipment is especially beneficial in measuring tunnels and tlirough truss bridges. 3. Three railroads used a photographic method which consists of a camera mounted on a highway-railway vehicle or motor car which is operated at night. A narrow beam of light is projected radially at right angles from the center line of track and is photographed to provide a complete oudine image of any obstruction. This outline is projected onto a grid system for inter- pretation. This method is ideal when complete darkness prevails as inci- dental lighting picked up by tlie camera may confuse the image on the film. The methods of measuring railway line clearances described in this report are now being put in final form for possible inclusion in the Manual as infonnation. 368 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 9 Investigate the Possibility of Including the Truck Center Dimensions of All Cars in the Official Railway Equip- ment Register, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with the Operating-Transportation Division, AAR p. T. Sarris (chairman, subcommittee), E. S. Birkenwald, M. E. Dust, C. H. Stephenson, W. J. Trezise. Your committee submits the following report as information: The length of truck centers has been shown in The Official Railway Equipment Register for heavy capacity and special type flat cars only. Railway personnel who handle clearance matters are normally furnished the car number without benefit of truck center dimensions required to properly investigate what clearance and weight restrictions would apply to a particular shipment. Several shippers of dimensional loads have also expressed their need for readily accessible truck center dimensions, particularly for open-top type cars. This subcommittee was unsuccessful in obtaining a commitment from the Operating-Transportation Division, AAR, to revise the existing Official Railway Equipment Register format to include a column for truck center length. In a con- certed effort to demonstrate the feasibility of including the truck center dimensions, M. E. Dust was instrumental in having the Louisville & Nashville Railroad show the truck center and axle spacing dimensions for open-top cars in die "Description" column of the Equipment Register. With the cooperation and assistance rendered by W. J. Trezise, issuing officer, The Official Railway Equipment Register, a number of railroads, including the A.T.&S.F., L.&N., N.J.I.&I., N&W, S.L.-S.F., S.C.L. and Southern, are now showing the truck center and axle spacing dimensions for tiieir open-top cars under tlie "Description" column of their registration. Since neither the truck center nor axle spacing dimensions are required for tariff purposes, the publishing of them is not mandatory; however, your committee respectfully requests each railroad to show the truck center and axle spacing dimen- sions in their representation in the Equipment Register as several have already done. This report in fact proves the feasibility of showing truck center dimensions in The Official Railway Equipment Register. Advertisement 368-1 Jainnwni RAILWAY MOTOR CARS AND WORK EQUIPMENT ■^ ^^^^H ^^H ^^^^^H ^^1 j^^^^^H ■■1 ^^^^^H ■■1 ^^^^^H s S^^l 1^^ ^^^^^H HHH ^^^^^H I^B ^^^^^H i^^l ^^^^^H ■■■ ^^^^^H g ^H HH i^^^^^l IMH ^^^^^H IHH ^^^^^H ■■ ^^^^H ■^H ^^^^^H ■■■ ^^^^^H HHI jj^^^^^H ■■ ^^^^^H m l^^^^^l IHH ^^^^^H l^^l I^^^^H s ^^H HBM ^^^^^H ■^1 ^^^^^H ■^1 ^^^^^H ^■H ^^^^^H BHI ^^^^^H ■■i ■fllH (PeAfowuuice ON THE JOB COUNTS ^^^ ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H H^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H g^^^^H ^^1 ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H g^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^H ii^^^H INSPECTION MOTOR CARS SECTION MOTOR CARS GANG MOTOR CARS PUSH CARS AND TRAAERS HY-RAIL EQUIPMENT BALLAST MAINTENANCE CARS WEED MOWERS TOW TRACTORS RAIL GRINDERS DERRICK CARS HYDRAULIC POWER TOOLS TRACK LINERS TRACK LINING LIGHT SPIKE DRIVERS TIE REMOVERS TIE HANDLERS RAIL LIFTERS TIE SHEARS TIE BED SCARIFIERS SPIKE PULLERS TIE PLUG INSERTERS TIE SPRAYERS TIE INSERTERS THESE UNITS ARE ACTUATED EITHER COMPLETELy OR PARTIALLY BY HYDRAULIC POWER FAIRMONT RAILWAY MOTORS, INC., FAIRMONT, MINNESOTA 56031 368-2 Advertisement Portec's On the Move. 4 Ways We're Aggressively Supporting Your Progress. Portec's Transportation Products Group has been streamlined and expanded. To provide you with better service for your track and transportation needs. And to develop new products for the challenging years ahead. Listed here are some of the Portec products that have gained world-wide acceptance. Watch for news of further developments — the kind of innovations you expect from a leader like Portec. Paragon Division Auto Racks New Fully Enclosed Multi-Levels with Tri-Fold Doors Bi-Level Racks Tri-Level Racks End Door Enclosure — Multi-Level Racks Other Equipment Frame Cars Cable Reel Cars Ingot Mold Cars Special Equipment Components Railway Products Division Rail Anchors Improved Fair® XL-1 Fair® Insulated Rail |oints Poly-Insulated Portec-Bond Continuous Armored Continuous Components for Insulated Rail Joints Poly Plates Double-Filament-Wound Bushings Blue Ribbon Nylon Epoxy End Posts Non-Insulated Rail Joints Portec-Bond Headfree Toeless Headfree Flanged Compromise Rail Joint Renewal Insulation Kits Mark II - polymer insulation Mark III - polymer insulation Rail and Flange Lubricators Single Rail Double Rail Four Bar Type Rail Joint Heater Portable Model 75 - for bonding joints Ties Wood Ties DowMac Concrete Ties New Products in 1976 Curv-Bloc Reinforcing Strap for CWR Advertisement 368-3 RMC Division Track Machines Anchor Adjusting Machine AnchorMaster Auto-Spiker Ballast Distributor — Distributor/Cleaner BoltMaster Bridge Tool Machine Brush Cutter Clip Tightener Compressor Cart LineMaster Rail and Joint Straightener Rail Saw-Drill Combination SpikeMaster Spiker-Spacer TieMaster Tie Plate Broom Tie Unloader Track Broom Tampers Hydramatic-16 Hydra ulic-16 Multi-Purpose 8 Hydraulic 8 Jack Switch Spot Spot Switch Snow Blower Typhoons Hurricane Jets Rail Laying Equipment Dual Welded Rail Laying Equipment Gauging Machine Plug Setter Rail End Hardening Machine Rail Oiler Rail-Laying Auto-Spiker Rail Anchor Cart Scrap Loader Spike Distributor Carl Tie Plate Gauger Spot Systems Car and Locomotive Pullers Jacks, Jib Cranes Retarders Shipping Systems Division Rail Car Tie-Down Systems and Components for: Vehicles Automobiles, Trucks, Other Vehicles Tractors, Farm Implements Heavy Construction Equipment Materials Automobile and Truck Frames Lumber Cable Reels Steel, Steel Plate, Steel Coil, Aluminum Ingot Containers Fixed and Retractable Locks Special Components for Freight Cars Bridge Plates Hardened Brake Pins Center Plates Other Equipment Special Tie Down Systems for Flat Bed Trailers — fixed and retractable twist lock assemblies for trailers and containerchassis POllTEC inc. Transpoiialion Products 301) Wiiulsiir Drive;, Oak Brook, Illinois (iOj'il T(!lcphonr:(:U2):»25-J)3(K) 36S-4 Advertisement LORAM'S ALL AMERICAN TRACK TEAM 24 STONE RAIL GRINDER Modern Maintenance of Way Equipment ...designed to do the job better, easier and at less cost —with your men or ours — in record time! >^M ^^m CRIB SKELETONIZER TIE INSERTER SHOULDER BALLAST CLEANER . 1"^. -I III •^^^'S^ksn^^t ii'.rs AUTOSLED ..J«-.~l.. -.1 '* !• ■ »KSKfa,jiiBir'i^«i MULTI-PURPOSE MACHINE I . « 1 rrST^'i ;' il* vfitKiii.^^r'iSHii ii '>. :s:z AUTOTRACK WITH PLOW AND SLED THE WINNING TEAM FOR TRACK REHABILITATION PROGRAMS LORAM RAILWAY MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT FOR: • Shoulder Ballast Cleaning • Raising Track • Resurfacing • Reballasting • Replacing Ties • Undercutting • Ballast Cleaning • Crib Skeletonizing • Rail Grinding Single or Multiple track • Mainline or Yard tracks CONTRACT, SALE or LEASE M £ MB C K RPI FOR FULL DETAILS, OR SHOWING OF OPERATING FILMS. WRITE OR CALL TODAY MAINTENANCE OF WAY, INC. 3900 Arrowhead Drive • Hamel, MN 55340 U.S.A PHONE: (612) 478-6014 ■ TELEX: 29-0391; Cable. LOMM Advertisement 368-5 Solid Design and construction features of the hook, throat and pad work together to provide real gripping force with enormous reserve power. Positive anti-overdrive stop. Generous hook and throat base pads assure positive seating. . firm grip. Stamped code identifies rail size application. Channeloc Channeloc presents a deep, full length profile to the tie for maximum tie-bearing integrity. Its large, smooth bearing surface enables Channeloc to evenly transfer the thrust of rail creep to the tie without affecting service life of the tie, plate or spike. Channeloc is easily applied, removed and re-applied. I prolecled by U S Patent Numbers 3.102 690-3.1 IS. -327-3 1S9 198 mUE lEMPER. An Allegheny Ludlum Industries Company 368-6 Advertisement KERITE CABLE M f •.' » f T For dependability in actual use, no other cable matches Kerite. We believe you will be inn- pressed by the evidence. THE KERITE COMPANY PRINCIPAL OFFICES: Boston; Chicago; Houston; Philadelphia; San Francisco; and Seymour, Connecticut • Sales Representation throughout the United States. A subsidiary of Harvey Hub- bell incorporated. RITE insulation that makes the difference Advertisement 368-7 RTW PORTABLE RAIL GRINDERS... A model for every requirement. With over 65 years of grinder experience, RTW has developed the most complete line of versatile, portable grinders available to the industry. Whatever your need, there's a RTW model especially designed for the job. • E-72 (shown above), a flex-shaft power plant with a variety of attachments for multipurpose use. • E-1 (shown below), a lightweight flex-shaft grinder available with straight and cup-wheel hand piece. • P-6-L, for high-speed precision grinding of frogs and rail joints. • P-16 D.S.P., a heavy duty unit designed for removing overflow metal from all types stock rails and switch points. • JG-970, dual head, cross grinder for high- production rail slotting. • X-60, a single head cross grinder. • P-45-A, cup-wheel surface grinder for reforming welded rail ends. Write for detailed specification sheets on these and other high-performance equipment by RTW. /^ ^ other RTW Maintenance Equipment ^%^%M RTW ) Grinders (many additional models not listed above) FlB^B V J Tie Handlers • Anchor Cribbers "XSi'.i T RAILWAY TRACK-WORK CO. 2560 East Tioga St.. Philadelphia. Pa. 19134 Agents; Chicago— ESCO Equipment Service Co • Houston — Service Equipment & Supply Company Los Angeles— Simkins Company • Louisville— T. F Going • St Louis— R E Boll Co S Plainfield, N.J. —Eastern Railroad Equipment Corp. • Canada: Montreal— Woodmgs-Canada Ltd Export: American Equipment Co., Boca Raton. Florida 368-8 Advertisement wa Thermit ...A MODERN, SELF-PREHEAT METHOD OFFERING: D AUTOMATIC, ERROR-FREE PRE-HEATING AND TAPPING OF WELD METALS D EASY, COLD REMOVAL OF RISERS D NO EQUIPMENT TO PURCHASE OR LEASE Call or Write For FREE Details... Plus, Job-Site Demonstration US. THERMIT INC Lakehurst, New Jersey 08733 • (201)657-5781 Teiex: TEGOWHP 710-568-1352 Advertisement 368-9 SafBtran MODEL C TRACK WRENCH mounted on a UNIVERSAL TRAVERSE CARRIER The Industry's Best Buy. • Lightweight • Powerful • Full 360» Rotation • Set-off Pedestal • One Man Operation |y|g ,^^*rf *^' •^"'iiJS^^^^^^^^^^^^B For operating data and specifications see SAFETRAN M/W CATALOG -Section 16-C Safetran Systems Corporation 7721 National Turnpike . Louisville, Ky. 40214 . (502) 361-1691 368-10 Advertisement The Allegheny Insulated Rail Joint- Designed to withstand the heaviest traffic in welded rail This modern joint cements roil ends in position and thereafter resists all forces imposed by temperature and simultaneous forces of live loads to move them. This joint makes welded rail truly continuous. It promises you years of service without maintenance costs. It reduces rail and wheel batter to a previously unknown minimum. It employs the safety of steel splice bars. It can be assembled in the shop or field. It has been tested in service and AAR laboratories. It saves you lots of money. Allegheny Drop Forge Company Subsidiary of Tasa Corporation 2707 Preble Avenue • Pittsburgh, Pa. 15233 Advertisement 368-11 Repair at 10% of replacement cost! The structural cracks in this bridge are being "welded" with epoxy. Osmose epoxy injec- tion restores structural integrity without service interruptions at a fraction of replacement cost. The proven OSMOSE method: • ANALYSIS • CLEANING • SEALING • CONTROLLED PRESSURE INJECTION • DETAILED INSPECTION REPORTS iosMOSE RAILROAD DIVISION 4546 Tompkins Drive Madison, Wis. 53716 368-12 Advertisement CLEARANCES RAILWAY LINE CLEARANCES* Presents vertical and horizontal clearances, and weight limita- tions for more than 250 railroads of North America. Also selected maps, instructions, and A.A.R. diagrams. Published annually in June with interim change circulars. Subscription $8 ($5 to reg- istrant companies). N.Y. residents add sales tax. EQUIPMENT THE OFFICIAL RAILWAY EQUIPMENT REGISTER® Describes by reporting marks and series numbers freight cars operated by railroads and private car companies of North Amer- ica, with inside and outside dimensions, cubic and pounds capacities, A.A.R, Mechanical Designations and Car Type Codes. Includes interchange points for railroads and home points for private car owners, with instructions regarding payments, move- ments and repairs. Separate section for railroad-owned heavy capacity and special type flat cars, and A.A.R. Car Service and Car Hire Rules, plate diagrams, and selected circulars and directives. Complete list of A.A.R. Reporting Marks and Uni- form Alpha Codes. Published quarterly. Subscription $45 ($34 to registrant companies). Single copy $15 ($10 to registrant companies). PUBLISHED BY NATIONAL RAILWAY PUBLICATION COMPANY 424 WEST 33rd ST • NEW YORK, NY 10001 • -212' 563-7319 Report of Committee 15 — Steel Structures D. S. Bechly, Chairman C. A. Hughes, Vice Chairman D. L. NoHD W. D. Wood F. P. Dhew J. G. Clark R. I. SiMKINS J. E. Barrett I. Berger L. X. Bigelow E. S. Birxen'wald (E) E. Bond T. I. BOVLE J. C. Bridgefarmer C. J. Burroughs H. L. Chamberlain R. W. Christie W. B. Conway H. B. CUNDIFF L. F. Currier E. J. Daily A. C. Danks T. \y. Davidson "L. D. Davis E. B. Dobranetski J. L. DURKEE X. E. Ekrem j. W. Fisher C. F. Fox C. K. GiLLAN C. E. GiLLEY C. W. Hale 1. W. Hartman J. M. Hayes (E) A. Hedefine (E) G. E. Henry L. R. HuRD M. L. Koehler L. R. KUBACKI A. Lally E. M. Laytham K. H. Lenzen A. D. M. Lewis H. B. Lewis H. M. Mandel R. C. McMaster D. V. Messman (E) J. MiCHALOS G. E. Morris, Jr. F. Moses R. H. Moulton V. V. MUDHOLKAR W. H. MUNSE R. F. Noll R. D. XORDSTROM W. H. Pahl, Jr. A. L. PlEPMEIER F. A. Reickert W. W. Sanders, Jr. M. SCHIFALACQUA A. E. Schnudt F. D. Sears G. R. Shay H. Solarte A. P. Sous A J. E. Stallmeyer Z. L. SZELISKI W. M. Thatcher E. S. Thoden R. N. Wagnon C. R. Wahlen R. H. Wengenroth W. Wilbur R. D. Williams E. X. Wilson A. J. Wood J. A. Zeleznqcar Committee ( E ) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman and vice chairman, are the subcommittee chainnen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. Revisions to Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges submitted for adoption were published in Part 1 of Bulletin 660, Xo\einber- December 1976. 1. Develop Criteria for the Design of Unloading Pits, Collaborating with Committees 7 and 8. A new section. Section 8.4, Unloading Pits, was submitted for adoption. The new section was published in Part 1 of Bulletin 660, November- December 1976. 369 Bal. 661 370 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 2. Obtain Data from which the Frequency of Occurrence of Maximum Stress in Steel Railway Bridges may be Determined under Service Loading. No report. 7. Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Requirements in AREA Specifications Relating to Iron and Steel Structures. A new section, Section 9.6, Movable Bridges, was added to Part 9. The new section was published in the Revision of Manual recommen- dations in Part 1 of Bulletin 660, November-December 1976. 10. Continuous Welded Rail on Bridges, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committee 5. Revisions to Section 8.3, Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges, are being finalized. The Committee on Steel Structiikes, D. S. Bechly, Chairman. Report of Committee 6— Buildings W. C. Sturm, Chairman E. P. BOHN, Vice Chairman O. C. Denz, Secretary T. H. Seep R. Hale J. A. COMEAU J. H. Rump G. W. Fabrin D. A. Bessey W. F. Armstrong S. D. Arndt F. R. Bartlett G. J. Bluel J. J. Brandimarte G. J. Chamraz F. D. Day C. M. Diehl R. Evans C. S. Graves (E) A. R. Gualtieri W. G. Harding (E) J. W. Hayes H. R. Helker S. B. Holt K. E. Hornung W. C. Humphreys C. R. Madeley R. J. Martens J. N. Michel R. W. MiLBAUER L. S. Newman J. Norman L. A. Palagi T. F. Peel P. W. Peterson R. E. Phillips R. D. POWRIE J. G. Robertson J. E. SCHAUB (E) H. A. Shannon, Jr. J. S. Smith R. E. Smith S. G. Urban (E) W. M. Wehner T. S. Williams (E) Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. Subcommittee revised report on portable buildings previously sub- mitted as information. Report was placed in decimal fonnat for publi- cation in the Manual. Subcommittee to review Chapter 6 of the Manual for possible revision and upgrading. 1. Design Criteria for Freight Forwarding Facilities. Subcommittee has prepared an outline. It is anticipated this report will be submittted as Manual material in 1977. 2. Inspection and Maintenance of Railway Buildings. This assignment will consist of a series of reports, published as infor- mation, on the inspection and maintenance of various building com- ponents. The first of these, on roofing, will be published in 1977. 3. Design Criteria for Locomotive Load Test Compartments. New subject to be prepared as Manual material; 1978 publication estimated. 4. Design Criteria for Locomotive Washing Facilities. New subject to be prepared as Manual material; 1978 publication estimated. 371 372 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 5. Architectural Competition. Final report, submitted as information. This subcommittee will be continued under the new title of Architectural Education. Its prime ob- jective will be to maintain the open line of communication \\'ith the universities that \\ as established as a result of the competition .... page 373 The Committee ox Buildings, Walter Carsox Sturm, Chairman. Buildings 373 Report on Assignment 5 Architectural Design Competition D. A. Bessey (chaintian, subcommittee), E. P. Bohn, J. A. Comeau, F. D. Day, G. W. Fabrin, R. Hale, J. W. Hayes, S. B. Holt, K. E. Hornung, W. C. Humphreys, C. R. Madeley, R. J. Martens, R. W. Milbauer, L. S. Newman, L. A. Palagi, p. W. Peterson, R. E. Phillips, R. D. Poutrie, J. G. Robertson, J. H. Rump, H. A. Shannon, W. C. Sturm, S. G. Urban. Your committee submits the following final report on the results of an Archi- tectural Design Competition for College and Uni\ersity Students. GENERAL STATEMENT The idea for sponsoring an Architectural Design Competition was originally proposed at a meeting of Committee 6 in December 1971. The proposal was generally accepted by the committee and inquiries were sent to architectural schools tlirough- out the country. When tlie reaction of the universities contacted was found to be favorable a subcommittee was formed and a preliminary draft of the competition \\ as made and presented to the AREA Board of Direction. At its meeting of March 25, 1975, the Board approved the funding of the competition. Approximately 900 copies of the competition were mailed out to the 26 uni- versities which indicated an interest in participating in the competition. Xinety-six entries were received from 14 universities. The entries were judged on February 9 and 10, 1976, in the conference room of the Cliicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific in Union Station, Chicago. Twenty- three semi-finalists were selected from the 96 entries on the first day of judging. On the morning of the second day seven finalists were selected. From these finalists first and second place winners were selected that afternoon. The remaining five finalists received honorable mention awards. Committee 6 is proud to present for your review the \\inning entries in the 1976 competition. ( See following pages. ) 374 Bulletin 661— American Railway Engineering Association 0^>f: ^^)^r\ ■'■■ ;.r =^w Buildings 375 376 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Buildings 377 ^~" I/I Z < < f X w *• 0) h- «A k 4> M > K E 0) 3 h- T — ' — ^ 1— • — ^ 378 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Buildings 379 380 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Buildings 381 J 0- o < z < z ^ rwF - u Z ' - O - oe w 111 - .t o «n C u .— 0) — > Z 'c 3 382 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association ^ Buildings 383 384 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Buildings 385 Z < LM z < Ul a. Q. 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ELECTRONIC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 MECHANICAL « 1 A z < .J a. ec UJ ...Hii 5 4lt- J-" Z " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 0) o ■•- X ? ^ E 0) o > ii o 2 H o CO " ■ r " ^^ p^^ at 1 & p i/i o K z a. I/I S ^ a» Bui. 6G1 386 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Buildings 387 Plli Z lU .t o (/) 0) ^ 2 > = CD •• c |re Ok 5< rji Ul □I □ 8L 7°! p^ J < I — »- z < O O ^ <) 1 ) & &; < ) 1=4 H rs E -o p! I >j -P O O P< I W O "^ 0) C f< 1 C .,-i CO 3 ■d -H -d (D rH S ^ ^ fn Jh H l^ I O P< 0) ^ w >> c a: E tt) o a 'o u u >.j^ PS ^-> C -H ID (0 O )-! W < p; S K P5 F- ■? T) o -P ^ ^ o f) r-A o a) 9 ." -i-' 10 iD O ^s K EH r-j O E'.ch Mark Kenn Jame Paul ■ ^ w n Hers and 4n^ 4--> 3 -P 1-^ c E -d «5 ?i c i' (0 E m -p o d .^ G JJ f^ 10 CurH 4^ il il M e rH E iJ .r^ O ^^ ID O ID K S t^ m P. pq "^ ^ l-H P O ' (0 « to aj ^0; ._' C 1. bO ^< hD S ^^.^rH a j (D >,r-iii >> "d ^m,H4J^HrH^lrHOfl.H'd ID O ID ID ID ^ a) -jH •^^ 10 ID .H ID 0) J-l C rH rH 2 IS -P CMC ;-, ^j xi (D ■^' & ^- (D ., , > C ID J, .- i> ^ (D O >H V^ 4) • ii t. ID l^ Eh i-h rH P: rH (I, tJ fc^M C r-i W rH < rH Ifl ts PS M <3: 10 ID (i; J 4) IJ IT E "-. P> iJ rH C .w C o ^. V-H.H :3 o > c r: ID g ^asa ID t^5 •H 10 ID HJ c^ ^^ 4 c o 01 • C o 0. > o ll' rH 11 ^ VI Ul a: ID hO o » K § 3 C O !■ '^ ^ -^ O E C i: rH C .r- 10 o ., . C C O >■: EH t^ iJ < EH fee O rH 4' T! i t: o >» c -rJ > 3 ^1 fn c ;> 4 10 10 10 ID ^r- Report of Committee 13 — Environmental Engineering W. H. Melgren, Chairman R, S. Bryan, Jr., Vice Chairman D. R. York, Secretary R. C. Brownlee W. M. Harrison J. W. ZWICK W. D. Peters D. S. Kreiter Barbara J. Rust W. F. Arksey R. a. Bardwell R. G. Bielenberg C. H. Bryant L. R. Burdge A. F. BxrrcosK W. M. CUMMINGS W. P. Cunningham C. E. DeGeer J. C. DiETZ R. A. Dugan J. J. Dwyer (E) J. C. FiZER J. H. Flett J. W. Gwynn T. L. Hendrix K. K. Hersey R. R. Holmes D. J. Inman E. S. Johnson T. L. King R. M. Lindemuth F. L. Manganaro W. D. Mason R. G. Michael C. F. MUELDER E. T. Myers T. F. Murphy G. H. Nick M. F. Obrecht L. W. Pepple Robert Singer J. H. Smith R. J. Spence M. P. Stehly W. N. Stockton W. C. Studabaker T. A. Tennyson L. R. TiERNEY J. W. Webb, Jr. M. L. Williams Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. Under way is the continued updating of "Glossary of Terms" and "Di- rectories of Pollution Control Agencies." 1. Water Pollution Control. The assignment "Investigate Problems Associated with Surface Runoff from Yards and Shops" is being continued. 2. Air Pollution Control. Revised Section 2.1 "Recommended Guide Standards" with the Glossary of Terms removed and expanded as Appendix A; and revised and updated Appendix B, "Directory of Governmental Enforcement Agencies" presented as infonnation page 391 3. Land Pollution Control. The assignment "Use of Solid Wastes for Heat or Process Steam Pro- duction" has been broadened in scope and assigned jointly to Sub- committees 2 and 3. Industrial Hygiene. Report "Personal Protective Equipment" submitted as information page 413 389 390 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 5. Plant Utilities. Report: "Recommended Practice and Equipment for Recovering Waste Oils for Railroad Reuse" submitted as infomiation page 417 7. Noise Pollution Control. The assigmnent "Car Retarder Noise Control" is being continued. The Committee on Environmental Engineering, W. H. Melgren, Chaimuin. Mavxv ilogan iHciHullin ^ 1895=1975 Harry Logan McMullin, retired engineer of tests and water supply, Texas & Pacific Railway, died 13 November 1975 in Dallas, Texas. He is survived by his widow and his son, Harry L. McMullin, Jr. Mr. McMullin was born at New Boston, Missouri, 7 January 1895, the son of Thomas Sanford and Elzora (Goddard) McMullin. He served in the U. S. Navy 1917-1918, and rose from apprentice seaman to ensign. In 192.3 he was graduated from the University of Arkansas with the degree of Bachelor of Chemical Engineer- ing. On 17 May 1924 he married Pearl Fears. Harry entered railroad service in 1923 on the Missouri-Kansas-Texas as water treating plant inspector. In 1924 he joined the Missouri Pacific, and was successively chemist, assistant engineer water ser\ice, and engineer water service. In 1944 he went with the Texas & Pacific as engineer water supply, and was later promoted to engineer of tests and water supply. He suffered a stroke in September 1959, and because of his ill healdi, retired from railroad service 15 January 1960. He had made his home in Dallas since 1944. Mr. McMullin held memberships in the AREA, AWWA, ASME, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Texas Water Conservation Association, and the National Society of Professional Engineers. He was a Registered Professional Engi- neer in the State of Texas. He was also a Mason, Shriner, Pi Kappa Alpha, and Alpha Chi Sigma. Harry joined the AREA 29 November 1926, and became a member of Committee 13, then designated as Water Service and Sanitation, in 1931. He served faithfully and earnestly in subcommittee work, and from 1941 on was a subcommittee chair- man. In 1951-52-53 he serxed as vice chairman and in 1954-5.5—56 as chairman of Committee 13 under its new name — Water, Oil and Sanitation Services. Upon his retirement in 1960 Harry became a Life Member of AREA and was made Member Emeritus of the Committee, in view of the many years of meritorious service rendered to it, and to the AREA in general. His years as chairman were years of productivity and progress for the committee. Mac was known for his out- going generous nature, his sincere interest in AREA work, and his capacity for making friends and winning the respect and loyalty of fellow associates. He will be deeply missed by all who knew him. J. J. Dwyer Met7ioruilist Environmental Engineering 391 Report on Assignment 2 Air Pollution Control W. M. Harrison (chairman, subcommittee), A. F. Butcosk, W. P. Cxjnningham, J. C. DuETz, R. R. Holmes, D. J. Inman, E. S. Johnson, R. M. Lindenmxjth, L. W. Pepple, R. J. Spence, M. L. Williams. Your committee presents, as information, the following revised Section 2.1 — Recommended Guide Standards, Part 2, Chapter 13 of the Manual, witli the Glossary of Terms removed and expanded as Appendix A of Part 2. Also presented is revised and updated Appendix B of Part 2, "Directory of Governmental Enforcement Agencies." 2.1 RECOMMENDED GUIDE STANDARDS 2.1.1 Policy and Purpose (a) To achieve and maintain such levels of air quality as will protect human health and safety and meet the applicable legal requirements. (b) Prescribe an approach to and basic information for defining and correcting air pollution problems. 2.1.2 General Regulations are based upon ambient pollution. However, air pollution problems can be controlled only by knowing how nmch of any contaminant will be prevented from entering the atmosphere. Sulfur compounds, organic vapors, odors, and particu- lates, including fly ash, dust and chemicals, are examples of contaminants that plague the railroad industry. 2.1.3 Types of Contamination 2.1.3.1 Particulates (a) open burning ( b ) incinerators (c) power plants (d) sand blasting (e) grain handling (f) coal handling (g) locomotive and vehicular exhausts (h) destruction and construction operation (i) ore handling (j) phosphate product handling (k) other dust producing equipment and materials. 2.1.3.2 Solvents (a) paints (b) cleaning operations (c) gasoline. 392 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 2.1.3.3 Stack Gases (a) locomotives and \ehicular exliausts (b) stationary sources (c) incinerators. 2.1.3.4 Odors (a) chemicals (b) putrefactions (c) fuel and lubricating oils (d) exhausts (e) vapors from cleaning operations. 2.2 SAMPLING, INSTRUMENTATION AND TESTING A. It is imperative that proper attention be given to methods of sampUng. Each method of measurement is subject to interferences which may lead to inaccurate and misleading results. B. Gas measurements are to be conducted tlirough Environment Protection Agency (EPA) approved, standardized instruments. The flow of gas should be of sufficient volume to represent rate of contamination. Personnel monitoring should be 1.8 1pm and calculated to time-weighted basis. (See Figs. 1 and 2). 2.2.1 Sampling or Collection 2.2.1.1 Particulates (a) EPA performs ambient sampling; therefore, generally, industry is not required to sample the abnosphere outside the plant. However, sanding locomotives, cleaning ballast, or chipping crossties may cause an atmospheric problem in which the railroad should measure the immediate vicinity. (b) Large particles will settle rapidly and dust jars can be used in the im- mediate vicinity to detennine whether the pollution problem will be of any concern to EPA. (c) Personnel monitoring is essential in determining health hazards. This type of sampling generally is done by attaching an air pick-up to the shirt collar and an air pump to the belt, sampling the air at the rate of 1.8 1pm. (d) Emission monitoring is done at the source of operation. However, if the pollutants are evacuated, tlien the point of discharge of the evacuation system is measured for contaminants. Stack emissions are sampled isokinetically. Humidity and air pressure are included in the calculation of stack emissions. (e) High volume sampling is used to collect particulates at the property perime- ter or any intermediate location on the leeward side of operation. The capacity of the pimip should be approximately 70 cu ft per minute. The sampling should be done over a long period of time. 2.2.1.2 Solvents or Organic Vapors (a) Hydrocarbons can be detected by a standard detector and reactor tubes, using a standard hand or automatic pump. This is a detection method, not a con- tinuous monitoring system. Environmental Engineering 393 (b) Generally, the control of organic vapors is governed by the formulation and use of materials such as paints and cleaners so that any emissions are in com- pliance with Air Contaminant Tables G-1 and G-2 for allowable concentrations, as found in Federal Regulations, Vol. 37, No. 202 for October 18, 1972, and other such standards as Los Angeles Rule 66. (c) Gasoline and other combustible materials can be detected by explosimeter. Safety precautions are necessary when any combustible vapors are detected. 2.2.1.3 Stack Gases (a) All pollutants measured for compliance witli Federal regulations should be done by using NIOSH approved methods. However, there are preliminary tests which can be used. The temperature, relative humidity, and velocity of the exhaust gases, as well as the visual inspection of the plume, will serve as guidelines in deter- mining whether improvement is necessary prior to consultation with Federal agencies. (See Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6). (b) Measurements of plume opacity can be made using an opacity meter which measures the relative light extinction caused by smoke discharged from the exhaust stack by passing Hght pulses through the plume and detecting tlie remaining energy with a photoelectric detector. This instrument has applications for continuous monitoring of stationary stack emissions and for periodic monitoring of stack emis- sions from mobile sources such as locomotives. Percent opacity of the measured plume can be made a continuous and permanent record by tieing in the instrument to a compatible strip chart recorder. 2.2.1.4 Odors (a) There appears to be a nebulous definition for odor per se. A volatile sulfur compound can be measured. However, a peculiar, repulsive odor may be difficult to classify and to determine whether corrective measures are necessary; generally a committee from the community and Federal agencies are necessary to determine tlie degree of offensiveness. (b) Odor of fuel oil is a telltale of pollution problems which require attention so as to prevent fines from enforcement agencies. 2.2.2 Instrumenting for Measurement (See Figs. 1, 1(A), 1(B), 2(A), 2(C), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13.) 2.2.3 Testing and Calibration of Instrumentation 2.2.3.1 Manufacturer's recommendations as to use of equipment should be fol- lowed explicitly. 2.2.3.2 Cleaning of all glasswares used in testing should be accomplished by allowing it to stand awhile in a chromic acid solution and then thoroughly rinsing witii single- and then double-distilled water. 2.2.3.3 Calibration should be done using high-grade standard solutions and gas samples. Standard solutions used should cover the expected range of sample concentrations. 2.2.3.4 Arrangements should be made whenever possible to have analytical work done on samples promptly after samples are taken. 2.2.3.5 Refer to the "NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods", HEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 75-121 for specific procedures in analytical work on gases. 394 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Averaqe iz- Toggle VaWe Throt+le Valve Probe AssembL L Orifice — Magna r,»';c GJiqe Fig. 3 — Equipment for particulate source sampling. Environmental Engineering 397 I ' . • H t ^MZM t III 1.1 >i '. ' ■ . 'i - '* Fig. 4 — Schematic sketch of an analyser for gases resulting from combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. 398 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association »0 Squeeze Dulb L.^^ Fig. 5 — Evacuated flask sampling train. Environmental Engineering 399 Open Fig. 6 — Displacement bottle. 400 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Fig. 7 — Inflation sampling train. n Fig. 8 — Purging sampling train. ntnR oowntot viiTt -- '(S^ — * iij PMiE oauzcTQn Hnex cas mnt Fig. 9 — Gas sampling train. Environmental Engineering 401 Wf > tr (h FR«iEO»T TRAP? Fig. 10 — Common pollutant collectors. n PILTER riDBE FLOW *- COLLECTOR METER REGULATOR CALTBRATED f ACUUK TANK Fig. 11 — Variation of sampling train. ro nvrui FROBE METER IVACUATEO CONTAINER Fig. 12 — Crab sampling train. 402 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Ughi Modole 3— t Ex.hou5t P^ui^e Stack, Fig. 13 — Typical opacity meter for measuring stack plume density. APPENDIX A— GLOSSARY Act: The Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 1857 et seq., as amended by Public Law 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676). Administr-^tor : The Administrator of the En\ ironmental Protection Agency or his authorized representative. Aerosol: Particle of solid or liquid matter that can remain suspended in the air because of its size (generally under 1 micron). Affected Facility: Witli reference to a stationary source, any apparatus to which a standard is applicable. Afterburner: An air pollution abatement device diat removes undesirable organic gases through incineration. Air Monitoring: Sampling for and measuring of pollutants present in the abnosphere. Air Pollution: The presence of contaminants in the air to such a degree that the normal self-cleansing or dispersive ability of the atmosphere cannot cope with them. Air Pollution Control Agency: Local agency, generally on the county level, charged with controlling pollutants discharged into tiie atmosphere. Air Pollution Control Association (APCA): Member-supported, non-profit technical association devoted to tlie gathering and publishing of information about air pollution and its control. Address is: A.P.C.A., 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Am Pollution Index: Daily calculation of a fonuula whose factors account for ambient concentrations of major local pollutants. Index is generally keyed, at appropriate le\els, to local agency's episode control program. Am Quality: The prescribed level of pollutants in air tliat cannot be exceeded legally during a specified time in a specified geographical area. Environmental Engineering 403 Am Quality Criteria: The varying amounts of pollution and lengths of exposure at which specific adverse effects to healtli and welfare take place. Alternative Method: Any method of sampling and analyzing for an air pollutant which is not a reference or equivalent method but which has been demonstrated to the Administrator's satisfaction to, in specific cases, produce results adequate for his detennination of compliance. Ambient Pollution: Pollutants in any unconfined portion of tlie atmosphere; the outside air. Atmosphere: The layer of life-giving gases (air) that surrounds the earth. Baghouse: An air pollution abatement device that traps particulates (dust) by forcing gas streams tlirough large filter bags, usually made of glass fibers. Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) : A colorless, odorless, toxic gas produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances. One of the major air pollutants, it is emitted in large quantities by exhaust of gasoline-powered vehicles. Catalytic Converter: An air pollution abatement device that removes organic contaminants by oxidizing them into carbon dioxide and water through chemical reaction. Coefficient of Haze ( COH ) : A measurement of the quantity of dust and smoke in the atmosphere in a theoretical 1000 linear feet of air. A COH of less than 1 is considered clean air and more than 3 is considered dirty air. Commenced: With respect to the definition of "new source" in section in(a)(2) of tlie Act, that an owner or operator has undertaken a continuous program of construction or modification or that an owner or operator has entered into a contractual obligation to undertake and complete, within a reasonable time, a continuous program of construction or modification. Construction: Fabrication, erection, or installation of an affected facility. Controls: With reference to air pollution, the means by which air contamination is regulated. Such controls may be eitlier legal or technical. Legal Controls are laws and regulations adopted to secure prevention or abatement of emissions into the atmosphere. Technical Controls are processes, equipment or devices designed to eliminate or reduce pollutants. Cyclone: An air pollution abatement device that removes heavy particles through centrifugal force. Dust: Solid particles capable of temporary suspension in the air or other gases; one of several types of particulate matter. Dustfall Jar: An open-mouthed container used to collect large particles which settle by gravity in order to measure and analyze them. Ecology: The interrelationship of organisms and their environment, and the science that is concerned with that interrelationship. Efflitent ( Emission ) : Any pollutants discharged to tlie atmosphere. Electrostatic Precipitator: An air pollution abatement device that removes particulate matter by forcing the gas stream tlirough an electrical field which charges the particles so that they are collected on an electrode. Emission Inventory: A list of air pollutants emitted into a community's atmosphere, in amounts (commonly tons) per day, by type of source. 404 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Eaussion Monitoring: Measuring pollutants at the place of discharge into the atmosphere. Emission Standard: Rule or measurement established to regulate or control the amount of a gi\ en pollutant which may be discharged to the outdoor atmosphere from its source. ENn'moNMENT: The aggregate of all the external conditions and influences affecting the life, development, and ultimately tlie survival of an organism. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Group charged with enforcement of Federal regulations designed to control air pollution. Good source for infor- mation, literature, films, etc. Address is: E.P.A., Office of Public AJfairs, Park- lawn Building, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852. EPA: Federal Agency designated as tlie Environmental Protection Agency. EQtrrv'ALENT Method: Any method of sampling and analyzing for an air pollutant which has been demonstrated to the Administrator's satisfaction to have a consistent and quantitatively known relationship to the reference method, under specified conditions. Epidemiology: The study of diseases as they affect populations rather than individuals. Equivalent Opacity: The application of tlie Ringelmann system to the evaluation of the density of other than black smoke (see Ringelmann). Flue Gas: A mixture of gases, resulting from combustion and other reactions in a furnace and then channeled through a chimney or stack into the outdoor air. Fluorides: Gaseous or solid compounds containing fluorine emitted into the air from a nmnber of industrial processes. Fly Ash: Gas-borne particles of matter resulting from the combustion of fuels and other materials. Fume: Solid particles under 1 micron in diameter, formed as vapors condense or as chemical reactions take place. Grain: A unit of weight equivalent to 65 milligrams or 2/1,000 of an ounce. Grain Loading: The rate of emission of particulate matter from a source. Measure- ment is made in grains of particulate matter per cubic foot of gas emitted (mass per volume). Hi-VoLUME Sampler: A device used to collect a sample of particulate matter on a filter; often called a Hi- Vol. HoLTRLY Period: Any 60-niinute period commencing on the hour. Hydrocarbon: Any of a vast family of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen in various combinations; found especially in fossil fuels. Some of tlie hydro- carbons are major air pollutants: they may be active participants in the photo chemical process or affect healtli. Hydrogen Sulfide: A gas characterized by "rotten egg" smell, found in tlie vicinity of oil refineries, chemical plants and sewage treatment plants. Incineration: The burning of household or industrial waste in a combustion cham- ber designed for the purpose. Inversion ( Thermal Atmospheric Inversion ) : An atmospheric condition where a mass of wami air moves in over a mass of cooler air and acts as a lid, pre- Environmental Engineering 405 venting pollutants from escaping up\\'ard. In the absence of sufficient wind to disperse the pollutants, tliey remain near ground level for the duration of the inversion. Isokinetic Sampling: Sampling in which the linear velocity of the gas entering tlie sampling nozzle is equal to that of the undisturbed gas stream at the sample point. Malfunction: Any sudden and unavoidable failure of air pollution control equip- ment or process equipment or of a process to operate in a normal or usual manner. Failures that are caused entirely or in part by poor maintenance, careless operation, or any other preventable upset condition or preventable equipment breakdown shall not be considered malfunction. Micro: A prefix meaning 1/1,000,000, abbreviated by Greek letter m. Micron: A unit of length equal to one thousandth of a millimeter or about 1/25,000 of an inch. Milli: a prefix meaning 1/1,000. MiST: Liquid particles up to 100 microns in diameter. Modification: Any physical change in, or change in the method of operation of, an affected facility which increased the amount of any air pollutant (to which a standard applies) emitted by such facility or which results in the emission of any air pollutant (to which a standard applies) not previously emitted, except that: (1) Routine maintenance, repair, and replacement shall not be considered physical changes, and (2) The following shall not be considered a change in tlie method of operation: (i) An increase in the production rate, if such increase does not exceed tlie operating design capacity of the aftected facility; (ii) An increase in hours of operation. (iii) Use of an alternative fuel or raw material if, prior to the date any standard under tliis part becomes appHcable to such facility, as provided by Paragraph 60.1, the affected facility is designed to accommodate such alternative use. NIOSH: Federal Agency designated as National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety (Deparhiient of HEW). Nitrogen Oxides: Gases fonned in great part from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen when combustion takes place under conditions of high temperature and high pressure; considered a major air pollutant. Opacity: Degree of obscuration of light. For example, a window is "0" in opacity, a wall is 100% opaque. The Ringelmann system of evaluating smoke density is based on opacity. Organic Compounds: Large group of chemical compounds that contain carbon. All living organisms are made up of organic compounds. Some types of organic gases, including olefins, substituted aromatics and aldehydes, are highly re- active — that is, participate in photochemical reactions in the atmosphere to form oxidant. OSHA: Federal Agency, designated as Occupational Safety and Health Adminis- tration (Department of Labor). 406 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Owner or Operator: Any person who owns, leases, operates, controls, or super- vises an affected facility or a stationary source of which an affected faciUty is a part. Oxidant: Substance in the air (e.g., nitrogen dioxide, ozone) which makes available oxygen or oxygenated compounds for chemical reaction. Oxidants are formed, for example, from the reaction of certain reactive hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide, under tlie influence of sunlight. Ozone: A pungent, colorless, toxic gas. As a product of tlie photochemical process, it is a major air pollutant. Particulate: A particle of soHd or liquid matter: soot, dust, aerosols, fumes and mists. Photochemical Process: The chemical changes brought about by tlie radiant energy of the sun acting upon various polluting substances. The products are known as photochemical smog. Plume: A characteristically-shaped stream of materials or heated gases entering the atmosphere from a locaUzed source such as a stack. A plume may be visible (smoke, water droplets, etc.) or invisible (heated air or colorless gas). Pollxttant: An impurity or contaminant emitted to the ambient air. It may be a solid (particulate matter), liquid (mist), or gas (such as carbon monoxide). PPM: Parts per million, the number of parts of a given pollutant in a million parts of air; a measure of concentration. Proportional Sampling: The sampling at a rate tliat produces a constant ratio of sampling rate to stack gas flow rate. Putrefaction: Decomposition of organic matter, producing foul smelling, incom- pletely oxidized products as mercaptans and alkaloids. Reference Method: Any method of sampling and analyzing for an air pollutant as described in Appendix A to this part. Ringelmann Chart: Actually a series of charts, numbered from to 5, tliat simulate various smoke densities, by presenting different percentages of black. A Ringel- mann No. 1 is equivalent to 20 percent black; a Ringelmann No. 5, to 100 percent. They are used for measuring the opacity of smoke arising from stacks and other sources, by matching with the actual effluent the various mmibers, or densities, indicated by die charts. Run: The net period of time during which an emission sample is collected. Unless otherwise specified, a run may be eitlier intermittent or continuous \\dthin tlie limits of good engineering practice. Scrubber: A device tliat uses a hquid spray to remove aerosol and gaseous pollutants from an airstream. The gases are removed either by absorption or chemical reaction. Solid and hquid particulates are removed tlirough contact with the spray. Shutdown: The cessation of operation of an affected facility for any purpose. Smog: A term coined, originally, to characterize any objectionable, visible combi- nation of smoke and fog. It was soon found, however, tliat air pollution does not always produce visible smog, nor does fog have to be present when smog is formed. There are two principal types of smog: Environmental Engineering 407 London Smog: The smog occurring at night or on cold (below 50°F) foggy days and characterized by a high content of smoke particles, sulphur compounds and fly ash. It may produce poor visibihty and bronchial irritation; and, in a few widely-published instances, has caused death among persons suffering from cardiac or respiratory diseases. Photochemical ( or Los Angeles Smog ) : The smog prevalent in the daytime around sunny, poorly-ventilated, heavily-motorized urban areas and characterized by the interaction of nitrogen oxides and certain hydrocarbon compounds under the influence of sunlight and, nomially, in relatively stagnant air. It may reduce visibility, irritate the eyes and damage some vegetation. Automotive exhaust is a prime source of the gases that can produce this form of pollution. Smoke: Solid or liquid particles under 1 micron in diameter. Solid Waste Disposal: The disposal of garbage, rubbish and other refuse through incineration, compaction or as landfill. Stack: Also smokestack; a vertical pipe or flue which exhausts to the atmosphere gases and any particulate matter suspended therein. Standard: A standard of performance proposed or promulgated under this part. Standard Conditions: A temperature of 20° C (68° F) and a pressure of 760 mm of Hg (29.92 in. of Hg). Startup: The setting in operation of an affected facility for any purpose. Stationary Source: Any buildings, structure, facility, or installation which emits or may emit any air pollutant. Sulfur Oxides: Pungent, colorless gases formed primarily by the combustion of fossil fuels; considered major air pollutants; sulfur oxides may damage tlie respiratory tract as well as vegetation. Synergistic Effect: The term used to characterize the combined effect of air pollutants, when that effect is greater than — or at least different from — what would be expected if the known effects of each of the pollutants were simply added togetlier. Tape Sampler: An air sampling device which automatically collects samples of gases or particles on a roll of filter paper tape. Topography: The practice of graphic delineation in detail, usually on maps or charts of natural and man-made features of a place or region, in a way to show their relative positions and elevations. Variance: Permission granted for a limited time, under stated conditions, for a person or company to operate outside tlie limits prescribed in a regulation. Usually granted to allow time for engineering and fabrication of abatement equipment to bring the operation into compliance. 408 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association APPENDIX B— DIRECTORY OF GOVERNMENTAL ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Assistance and information concerning U. S. Governmental Regulations may be secured from the following EPA Regional Offices: REGION I — Connecticut, Maine, Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Is- land, \'ennont. Regional Administrator John F. Kennedy Federal Building Boston, MA 02203 REGION" II— New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands. Regional Administrator 26 Federal Plaza New York, N. Y. 10007 REGION III— Delaware, District of Co- lumbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir- ginia, West Virginia. Regional Administrator Curtis Building 6th & Walnut Streets Philadelphia, PA 19106 REGION IV — Alabama, Florida, Geor- gia, Mississippi, Kentucky, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Tennessee. Regional Administrator 1421 Peachtree Street, N.E. Atlanta, GA 30309 REGION \' — Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin. Regional Administrator 230 South Dearborn Chicago, IL 60604 REGION VI — Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas. Regional Administrator 1600 Patterson Street— Suite 1100 Dallas, TX 75201 REGION VII— Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska. Regional Administrator 1735 Baltimore Street Kansas City, MO 64108 REGION VIII— Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming. Regional Administrator 1860 Lincoln Street Denver, CO 80203 REGION IX — Arizona, California, Ha- waii, Nevada, Guam, American Samoa. Regional Administrator 100 California Street San Francisco, CA 94111 REGION X— Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Alaska. Regional Administrator 1200 SLxtli A\enue Seattle, WA 98101 Assistance and infonnation concerning governmental regulations may be secured from the following State agencies: ALABAMA Director, Division of Air Pollution Control Alabama Air Pollution Control Commission 645 S. McDonough St. Montgomery, AL 36130 ALASKA Air Quality Control Supervisor Department of Environmental Conservation 419 Sixth Street Juneau, AK 99801 Environmental Engineering 409 ARIZONA Chief, Bureau of Air Qv ality Control Arizona Department of Health Services Bureau of Air Quality Control 1740 West Adams St. Phoenix, AZ 85007 ARKANSAS Chief, Air Division Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology 8001 National Drive Little Rock, AR 72209 CALIFORNIA Executive Officer Air Resources Board 1709 11th Street Sacramento, CA 95814 COLORADO Division Director Air Pollution Control Division Colorado Department of Health 4210 E. 11th Ave. Denver, CO 80220 CONNECTICUT Director Department of Environmental Protection Air Compliance Unit 165 Capitol Ave. Hartford, CT 06115 DELAWARE Manager, Air Resources Section Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control Tatnall Building Capitol Complex Dover, DE 19901 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Director, Department of Environmental Services District of Columbia Department of Environmental Services Bureau of Air and Water Quality Control 614 H St., NW Washington, D. C. 20001 FLORIDA Secretary Department of Environmental Regulation Montgomery Building 2562 Executive Center Circle East Tallahassee, FL 32301 GEORGIA Director, Environmental Protection Division Department of Natural Resources 270 Washington St., SW Atlanta, GA 30334 HAWAII Chief, EPHS Division Enviromnental Protection and Health Services Division Hawaii State Department of Health 1250 Punchbowl Street Honolulu, HI 96813 IDAHO Supervisor, Air Quality Program Department of Health and Welfare 650 State Street Boise, ID 83720 ILLINOIS Acting Manager, Division of Air Pollution Control Illinois Environmental Protection Agency Division of Air Pollution Control 2200 Churchill Rd. Springfield, IL 62704 INDIANA Technical Secretary Air Pollution Control Board 1330 W. Michigan St. Indianapolis, IN 46206 IOWA Director, Air Quality Management Division Iowa Department of Environmental QuaUty 3920 Delaware Ave. Des Moines, lA 50316 410 Bulletin 661 — ^American Railway Engineering Association KANSAS Chief Air Quality and Occupational Health Kansas Department of Health and Environment Forbes Air Force Base — Bldg. 740 Topeka, KS 66620 KENTUCKY Director, Division of Air Pollution Kentucky Department for Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Capital Plaza Tower Frankfort, KY 40601 LOUISIANA Chief, Air Quality Section Louisiana Health and Human Resources Administration P O Box 60603 New Orleans, LA 70160 MARYLAND Director, Bureau of Air Quality and Noise Control Maryland State Department of Healdi and Mental Hygiene 201 West Preston St. Baltimore, MD 21201 MASSACHUSETTS Director, Bureau of Air Quality Control Department of Environmental Quality Engineering 600 Washington St. Boston, MA 02111 MICHIGAN Chief, Division of Air Pollution Control Michigan Department of Natural Resources Stevens T. Mason Bldg. Lansing, MI 48906 MINNESOTA Director, Division of Air Quality Minnesota Pollution Control Agency 1935 W. County Road— B-2 Roseville, MN 55113 MISSISSIPPI Chief, Division of Air Pollution Mississippi Air and Water Pollution Control Commission Robert E. Lee Building Jackson, MS 39205 MISSOURI Director, Air Quality Program Division of Environmental Quality P O Box 1368 Jefferson City, MO 65101 MONTANA Chief, Air QuaUty Bureau Montana State Department of Health and Environmental Sciences Cogswell Building Helena, MT 59601 NEBRASKA Chief, Air Pollution Division Department of Environmental Control 1424 "P" St. Lincoln, NE 68509 NEVADA Air Quality Officer Department of Human Resources 1209 Johnson St Carson City, NV 89710 NEW HAMPSHIRE Director New Hampshire Air Pollution Control Agency State Laboratory Building Hazen Dr. Concord, NH 03301 NEW JERSEY Chief, Bureau of Air Pollution Control Division of En\'ironmental Quality Department of Environmental Protection P O Box 2807 Trenton, NJ 08625 Environmental Engineering 411 NEW MEXICO Chief, Air Quality Division Environmental Improvement Agency P O Box 2348 Santa Fe, NM 87503 NEW YORK Director, Air Pollution Control Program New York State Department of Environmental Conservation 50 Wolf Road Albany, NY 12223 NORTH CAROLINA Chief, Air Quality Section Department of Natural and Economic Resources P O Box 27687 Raleigh, NC 27611 NORTH DAKOTA Executive Officer and Chief, Enviromnental Control North Dakota State Department of Health State Capitol Bismarck, ND 58505 OHIO Chief, Air Pollution Ohio Enviromnental Protection Agency 361 East Broad St. Columbus, OH 43216 OKLAHOMA Chief, Air Quality Service Environmental Health Services Oklahoma State Department of Health P O Box 53551 Oklahoma City, OK 73105 OREGON Director Department of Environmental Quality 1234 S.W. Morrison St. Portland, OR 97205 PENNSYLVANIA Director, Bureau of Air Quality and Noise Control Department of Environmental Resources Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 200 N. Third St. Harrisburg, PA 17120 RHODE ISLAND Chief, Div. of Air Pollution Control Rhode Island Division of Air Pollution Control 204 Health Building Davis St. Providence, RI 02908 SOUTH CAROLINA Chief, Bureau of Air Quality Control South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control J. Marion Sims Building 2600 Bull St. Columbia, SC 29201 SOUTH DAKOTA Chief, Air Quality Program Soudi Dakota Department of Environmental Protection Office Building #2 Pierre, SD 57501 TENNESSEE Director Division of Air Pollution Control Tennessee Department of Public Health 301 Seventh Ave.— Room 256 Capitol Hill Building Nashville, TN 37219 TEXAS Executive Director Texas Air Control Board 8520 Shoal Creek Blvd. Austin, TX 78758 UTAH Chief, Air Quality Section Utah State Division of Health 44 Medical Dr. Salt Lake City, UT 84113 VERMONT Air Pollution Control Officer Agency of Environmental Consei-vation P O Box 489 Montpelier, VT 05602 VIRGINIA Executive Director State Air Pollution Control Board Room 1106— Ninth Street Office Building Richmond, VA 23219 412 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association WASHINGTON Asst. Director for Air Programs Washington State Department of Ecology Ohmpia, WA 98504 WEST MRGIXIA Director West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission 1558 Washington St. East Charleston, W\' 25311 WISCONSIN Chief, Air Pollution Control Section Bureau of Air Pollution Control and Solid Waste Management Box 450 Madison, WI 53701 WYOMING Administrator Air Quality Division Deparbnent of Environmental Quality State Office Building Cheyenne, WY 82001 Assistance and information concerning govermnental regulations may be secured from the following Canadian Federal Agencies, Department of tlie Environment: AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DIRECTORATE Director General Air Pollution Control Directorate En\ironmentaI Protection Service En\ironment Canada Ottawa, Ontario KIA OH3 Canada ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT SER\TCE Director, Air Quality and Inter- Environmental Research Branch Atmospheric Environment Service Environment Canada 4905 Dufferin Street Do\\'ns\iew, Ontario M3H 5T4 Canada Assistance and information concerning from the following Canadian Pro\'incial A ALBERTA Head, Air Quality Control Branch Alberta En\ironment Environmental Protection Service Milner Building 10040—104 St. Edmonton, Alberta T5J 0Z6 Canada BRITISH COLUMBIA Director, Pollution Control Pollution Control Branch 1106 Cook St. Victoria, BC V8V 4S5 Canada INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMIS- SION (CANADIAN SECTION) Chairperson Canadian Section International Joint Commission Room 850, 151 Slater St. Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5H3 Canada INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMIS- SION (UNITED STATES SECTION) Chairperson United States Section International Joint Commission Room 203, 1717 H Street, N.W. Washington, D. C. 20440 governmental regulations may be secured gencies: MANITOBA Assistant Deputy Minister En\ironmental Management Di\ision Building #2, 139 Tuxedo Blvd. Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 0V8 Canada NEW BRUNSWICK Chief, Air Quality Section Pollution Control Branch Department of the Environment P. O. Box 6000 Fredericton, NB E3B 5HI Canada Environmental Engineering 413 NEWFOUNDLAND Director, Environmental Management and Control Environmental Management and Control Div. Department of Provincial Affairs and Environment Elizabeth Towers, 100 Elizabeth Avenue St. John's Newfoundland Canada NOVA SCOTIA Chief Administrator Nova Scotia Department of Public Health P. O. Box 488 Halifax, Nova Scotia Canada ONTARIO Director Air Resources Branch Ministry of the Environment 880 Bay Street Toronto, Ontario M5S 1Z8 Canada QUEBEC Director, Air Quality Environmental Protection Services 1020 St. Augustin Quebec, Que. Canada MONTREAL Director The Air Purification Department 1125 Ontario St., East Montreal, Quebec H2L 1R2 Canada SASKATCHEWAN Director, Air Pollution Control Branch Air Pollution Control Branch Saskatchewan Department of the Enviromuent Saskatchewan Power Building Regina, Saskatchewan S4P 0R9 Canada Report on Assignment 4 Industrial Hygiene W. D. Peters (chairman, subcommittee), R. A. Bardwell, R. S. Bryan, W. H. Melgren, E. T. Myers, R. G. Michael, G. H. Nick, R. Singer, T. A. Tenny- son, J. W. Webb. Your committee submits as information the following report on Personal Pro- tective Equipment: 4.8 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 4.8.1 All references shown in 4.8 are from ANSI specifications. 4.8.2 General Protective equipment including personal protective equipment for eyes, head and extremities, protective clothing, respiratory devices and protective shields and barriers, shall be provided, used and maintained in a sanitary and reliable condition whenever it is necessary by reason of hazards encountered in a manner capable of causing injury or impairment in the function of any part of the body through absorption, inhalative or physical contact. 414 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 4.8.3 Eye and Face Protection (ANSI Z87.1-1968) 4.8.3.1 General Requirements ( 1 ) E>e and face protection shall be required where there is a reasonable probability of injury that can be pre\'ented by such protection. (2) In such cases employers shall make conveniently available a type of pro- tector suitable for the work to be performed and employees shall use such protectors. (3) No unprotected person shall knowingly be subjected to a hazardous environmental condition. (4) Protectors shall meet the following minimum requirements: (a) They shall provide adequate protection against the particular hazards for which they are designed. (b) They shall be reasonably comfortable when worn under the desig- nated conditions. (c) They shall fit snugly and shall not unduly interfere with the move- ments of the wearer. (d) They shall be durable. (e) They shall be capable of being disinfected. (f) They shall be easily cleanable. (5) Protectors should be kept clean and in good repair. (6) Suitable eye protectors shall be provided where machines or operations present the hazard of flying objects, glare, liquids, injurious radiation, or a combi- nation of those hazards. (7) Persons whose vision requires the use of corrective lenses in spectacles and are required to wear eye protection, shall wear goggles of one of the following types: (a) Spectacles whose protective lenses provide optical correction. (b) Goggles that can be worn over corrective spectacles without disturbing the adjustment of the spectacles. (c) Goggles tliat incorporate corrective lenses movmted behind tlie pro- tective lenses. (8) Every protector shall be distinctly marked to facilitate identification only of the manufacturer. (9) When limitations or precautions are indicated by the manufacturer, they shall be transmitted to the user and care taken to see that such limitations and precautions are strictly observed. (10) Design, construction, testing and use of the devices shall be in accord- ance with ANSI Z87. 1-1968. 4.8.4 Respiratory Protection (ANSI Z88.2-1969) 4.8.4.1 Permissible Practice ( 1 ) In the control of those occupational diseases caused by breathing air contaminated with harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays, or \'apors, the primary objective shall be to prcxent atmospheric contamination. This shall be accomplished as far as feasible by accepted engineering control measures ( for example, enclosure or confinement of the operation, general and local ventilation, Environmental Engineering 415 and substitution of less toxic materials). When effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted, appropriate respirators shall be used pursuant to the following requirements. 4.8.4.2 Employer Responsibility (1) Respirators shall be provided by the employer when such equipment is necessary to protect tlie healtli of die employee. (2) The employer shall provide the respirators which are applicable and suit- able for the purpose intended. (3) The employer shall be responsible for tlie establishment and maintenance of a respiratory protective program which shall include the general requirements outlined in 4.8.4.4. 4.8.4.3 Employee Responsibility ( 1 ) The employee shall use the provided respiratory protection in accordance with instructions and training received. (2) The employee shall guard against damage to the respirator. (3) The employee shall report any malfunction of tlie respirator to the responsi- ble person. 4.8.4.4 Minimal Acceptable Program ( 1 ) Written standard operating procedures governing the selection and use of respirators shall be established. (2) Respirators shall be selected on the basis of hazards to which the worker is exposed. (3) The user shall be instructed and trained in the proper use of I'espirators and their limitations. (4) Where practicable, die respirators should be assigned to individual workers for their exclusive use. (5) Respirators shall be regularly cleaned and disinfected. Those issued for the exclusive use of one worker should be cleaned after each day's use, or more often if necessary. Those used by more than one worker shall be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected after each use. (6) Respirators shall be stored in a convenient, clean, and sanitary location. (7) Respirators used routinely shall be inspected during cleaning. Worn or deteriorated parts shall be replaced. Respirators for emergency use, such as self- contained devices, shall be thoroughly inspected at least once a month and after each use. (8) Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions and degree of employee exposure or stress shall be maintained. (9) There shall be regular inspection and evaluation to determine the con- tinued effectiveness of the program. 4.8.4.5 Medical Limitations ( 1 ) Persons should not be assigned to tasks requiring use of respirators unless it has been detennined that they are physically able to perform the work and use the equipment. The local physician shall determine what health and physical con- ditions are pertinent. The respirator user's medical status should be reviewed periodically (for instance, annually). 416 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 4.8.4.6 Classification, Description, Capabilities, Limitations and Selection of Respirators Which Must Be Approved by NIOSH (1) The following tables in ANSI Z88.2 should be used: (a) Table 1 — Classification of Respiratoiy Hazards According to Biological Effect. (b) Table 2 — Classification of Respiratory Hazards According to their Properties which Influence Respirator Selection. (c) Table 3 — Classification and Description of Respirators by Mode of Operation. (d) Table 4 — Capabilities and Limitations of Respirators. (e) Table 5 — Color Code for Gas-Mask Canisters. (f) Table 6 — Guide for Selection of Respirators. 4.8.4.7 Use in Dangerous Atmospheres ( 1 ) Written procedures shall be prepared covering safe use of respirators in dangerous atmospheres that might be encountered in normal operations or in emergencies. Personnel shall be familiar with these procedures and the available respirators. (2) In areas where tlie wearer, with failure of tlie respirator, could be over- come by a toxic or oxygen-deficient atmosphere, at least one additional man shall be present. Communications (visual, voice or signal line) shall be maintained between both or all individuals present. Planning shall be such that one individual will be unaffected by any likely incident and have the proper rescue equipment to be able to assist the otliers in case of an emergency. 4.8.4.8 Training and Education in Proper Use ( 1 ) For safe use of any respirator, it is essential that the user be properly instructed in its selection, use and maintenance. Both supervisors and workers shall so be instructed by competent persons. 4.8.4.9 Maintenance and Care of Respirators ( 1 ) A program for maintenance and care of respirators shall be adjusted to the type of plant, working conditions and hazards involved, and shall include the following basic services: (a) Inspection for defects (including a leak check). (b) Cleaning and disinfecting. (c) Repair by experienced persons only using parts designed for tlie respirator. (d) Storage — after inspection, cleaning and necessary repairs, respirators shall be stored to protect against dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold, excessive moisture or damaging chemicals. 4.8.5 Occupational Head Protection (ANSI Z891.1-1969) Helmets for the protection of heads of occupational workers from impact and penetration from falling and flying objects and from limited electric shocks and burn shall meet tlie requirements and specifications established in American National Standard Safety Requirements for Industrial Head Protection, ANSI Z89. 1-1969. 4.8.6 Occupational Foot Protection (ANSI Z41. 1-1967) Safety-toe footwear for employees shall meet the requirements and specifications in American National Standard for Men's Safety-Toe Footwear, ANSI Z4 1.1-1967. Environmental Engineering 417 4.8.7 Electrical Protective Devices Rubber protective equipment for electrical workers shall conform to the require- ments established in the American National Standards Institution standards as speci- fied in the following list: Item ANSI Standard 1. Rubber insulating gloves J6.6-1967 2. Rubber matting for use around electric apparatus J6.7-R1962 3. Rubber insulating blankets J6.4-1970 4. Rubber insulating hoods J6.2-R1962 5. Rubber insulating line hose J6.1-R1962 6. Rubber insulating sleeves J6.5-1962 Report on Assignment 5 Plant Utilities — Design, Construction and Operation D. S. Krieter (chairman, subcommittee), R. G. Bielenberg, C. E. DeGeer, R. A. DuGAN, J. H. Flett, W. D. Mason, T. F. Mxjrphy, G. H. Nick, M. P. Stehly, W. N. Stockton. Your committee submits die following report as information. RECOMMENDED PRACTICE AND EQUIPMENT FOR RECOVERING WASTE OILS FOR RAILROAD REUSE General Today more than ever before railroads are being legally forced to make long-term commitments with respect to pollution control. One significant section of pollution control concerns the economical removal and disposal or reuse of waste oil. Federal and state regulatory agencies require the removal of most oil from wastewater streams prior to discharge and in view of ever-increasing energy costs, railroads will be forced to develop new ways to utilize tliis oil for part of their energy requirements whenever practical. Several options are open to railroads in terms of botli recovering waste oil and reusing it. These options as they currently exist will be briefly dis- cussed, as well as recovery methods, but engineering and economics have to decide which type of oil recovery and reclamation equipment will be most effective at a particular installation. SOURCES OF WASTE OIL Refueling and Lube Oil Dispensing Facilities During the process of refueling a locomotive some spillage is bound to occur no matter how carefully the operation is carried out. During the course of several years this could amount to a significant quantity of fuel oil. Occasionally facilities of similar size and design differ widely in quantities of fuel which are spilled. Various reasons for tliis may be nozzles, leaking hoses or fittings or lack of properly Bui. CCl 418 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association trained personnel. Generally, the larger the facility the more oil which can be expected to be spilled due to the larger number of units being serviced. The addition of lube oil facilities to a refueling station naturally increases the probability of total oil spillage. Frequently the lube oil nozzles are not of a design to pennit automatic shutofF to prevent overflows such as those on many types of fuehng hoses. Hence, tlie rate of lube oil spillage in difi^erent facilities may be highly variable depending on the attention given to this matter by local personnel. Oil from Locomotive Maintenance Facilities Periodically loconioti\'e lubricating oil must be drained for various reasons. Some spillage usually occurs from this process despite the fact that many of the larger locomotive shops have tanks to collect the drained oil. In addition to the spilled oil itself which is capable of being drained into sewers, shop personnel fre- quently wash floors in tlie servicing area with strong detergents which emulsify the oil and can thereby increase the total quantity wliich is discharged to the sewers. Larger shops designated for running and heavy repair work on locomotives are also liable to accumulate large quantities of waste oils resulting from periodic main- tenance inspections. In addition to the generation of waste lube and fuel oils, locomotive engine rebuilding facilities frequently have special oil and grease solvents for cleaning locomotive parts, lye vats, etc., which add to the quantity of oil and grease generated in these areas. Locomotive Laundry The locomotive laundry can be a significant source of waste oil on many raihoads. If these washing facilities are used on a regular basis, large quantities of free-floating and emulsified oil and grease can be generated here. The more efficient a laundry is operating the more oil and grease and solids will be picked up from the locomotixe fuel tank, trucks and overall body services during tlie washing operation. Most facilities spray the locomotive exterior witli a strong alkahne detergent followed by a water rinse or successive sprays with alkaline cleaner, acid cleaner and water. Excessive amounts of cleaner, particularly alkaline based, tend to emulsify more oil and grease causing subsequent separation problems. Oil from Car Maintenance Facilities Areas designated for car journal repacking usually experience some spillage of journal oil through nonnal operations. This will be highly variable due again to size of various facilities and may or may not constitute a significant source. In many installations the journal oil is piped tliroughout the yard, creating many points for potential leaks and spills, whereas others have a central distribution point. Waste journal pads contain significant quantities of oil and its disposal is usually at a site where an attempt is made to eitlier remove the oil from die pads for reclamation or the pads are stored for later pick up by a scavenger. Whatever the nature of the used-pad disposal site, enough oil is usually spilled to cause a pollution problem if no effort is made to contain or collect it. OIL RECOVERY PRACTICES Treatment of oily wastes is similar in concept to treatment of domestic sewage. In domestic sewage treahnent a primary level of treatment is employed to separate Environmental Engineering 419 the easily settleable solids from the liquid, and in treatment of oily waste, primary treatment separates the floctable oils from tlie water and tlie emulsified oily material. A secondary treatment phase is then required to break the oil-water emulsion and separate the remaining oil and water. Primary treatment, of course, takes advantage of the difference in specific gravity of oils and greases versus water. The treatment process normally involves retaining the oily waste in a holding tank and allowing gravity separation of the oily material which is then skimmed from the wastewater surface. Gravity-type separators are the most common devices employed in oily wastewater ti'eatment. The effectiveness of a gravity separator depends upon proper hydraulic design and design period of wastewater retention. Longer retention times generally allow better separation of floating oils from water. A common type of gravity oil-water separator in use today is the API separator based upon design standards by the American Petroleum Insti- tute. The following table based upon treatment of refinery waste presents the per- cent efficiencies of several oil water separation processes, including the API separator: Efficiences of Oil Separation Processes' Source of Percent Removal Treatment Influent Floating Oil, % Emulsified Oil, % API separator Raw waste 60^99 Not applicable Air flotation, without chemicals API eflauent 70-95 10-40 Air flotation, witli chemicals API eflauent 75-95 50-90 Chemical coagulation and sedimentation API eflBuent 60-95 50-90 Unlike primary treatment which consists only of gravity separation plus skimming, secondary treatment may employ several different processes. These processes are directed toward breaking the oil-water emulsion which is passed through the primary separator, and separating the demulsified oil from the water phase. Emulsions may be broken by chemical, electrical or physical methods, but chemical methods are the most widely used at the present time. The electrical process is directed toward emulsions containing oil with small quantities of water and it is not widely used by the railroads. Most railroad waste in contrast is primarily water with lesser amounts of oil. Physical emulsion breaking methods include heating, centrifugation and precoat filtration, tlie latter two being the most connnon. Centrifugation breaks tlie oil emulsion by separating the oil and water phases under the influence of centrifugal force. Centrifugation is best applied to oily sludges, and is generally not used in tlie treatment of the typical dilute oily wastewater stream unless die volume is small. Chemical treatment of an emulsion is usually directed toward destabilizing tlie dispersed oil droplets or destroying any emulsifying agents present. The process may consist of rapidly mixing coagulant chemicals with the wastewater, followed by flocculation and flotation or settling. Wliile it has been shown that coagulation wdth aluminum or iron salts is generally effective for demujsifying oily waste from rail- road operations, they usually form hydroxide sludges which may be difficult to dewater. Acids generally cleave emulsions more effectively than coagulant salts but are more expensive and the resultant wastewater must be neutralized after oil-water separation. 420 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Reclamation Practice The reclamation of oil from wastewater should naturally be the most practical for tlie facUity under consideration and should follow good economic and engineering practices. For small and intermediate size fueling facilities as mentioned previously, it is customarj' to collect spillage in track fueling aprons constructed of concrete, metal or good quality reinforced fiberglass, sloped to drain to one side or an end. Collection aprons should be designed to cover the minimum area practical in order to reduce storm water runoff. The water and oil are then usually processed through a good gra^^ty oil-water separator pennitting reclamation of tlie oil while the water is discharged to a city sewer, or if quality is consistently high, to a stream under a XPDES permit. There are various processes which are effective for separating oil from waste- vv^ter and the choice of a particular system should be based on operating conditions at a particular site. Economics of operation should be given careful consideration to avoid building a facility requiring inordinate amounts of maintenance and oper- ating personnel. A couple of proven systems will be discussed here. a) Lagoons Lagoons, whether in series or isolated systems, have proved to be very efiBcient treatment systems when adequate space is available. One railroad reports excellent results from the use of two-cell lagoons for oil removal, biological treatment and stabilization of wastewater from intermediate and large-size shops. The first cell is generally designed with a detention time of 12 to 14 hours to allow free oil to separate from the water for easy removal by a belt skimmer or other de^^ce, while the second cell is designed with a detention time of 24 to 36 hours to allow for wastewater and flow equalization and any biological treatment which can occur. In addition to being a \'ery low maintenance facility for oil removal and wastewater treatment, the effluent from a properly designed lagoon can in many cases meet the stringent criteria of NPDES permits reasonably well without additional treatment. The suspended solids content of the influent is usually significantly reduced through a well designed lagoon system due to low velocities which encourage settling. The one major disadvantage of the lagoon system is the relatively large amounts of land required for construction. b) Dissolved Air Flotation Units DAF units when used in conjunction with a good oil-water separator can be a viable means of recovering waste oil and treating wastewater. There are many different technical aspects of DAF units which simply cannot be discussed in sufficient detail here. They are not economically feasible for every type of wastewater, and good pilot plant studies and lab tests for the facility in question should be conducted before deciding on installation of one of these units. The principle of operation of DAF units involves saturating the waste\\'ater with compressed air and then passing it through a slight pressure differential. This causes the air to come out of solution in the form of finely di\'ided bubbles which attach to and float to the water surface, solids and emulsified oils. Frequently a flocculant or polymer is added to enhance the formation of optimum size particles in the water ahead of the point of air saturation, along with the pH adjusting chemical. As the solids accumulate at the water surface they are skinnned oft a va- riety of ways and the treated water is discharged to a city sewer or stream under a NPDES permit. Some shortcomings frequently associated with DAF units include: Enviionmental Engineering 421 1. Personnel is required to monitor floe formation, chemical feed vats, skimming mechanisms and general overall operation. 2. Sufficient blending and equalization of flows should be done before waste- water reaches a DAF unit to avoid constant readjusting of chemical feed rates, if any. 3. An additional expense for sludge removal is usually required. RAILROAD USES OF RECOVERED OIL As Fuel for Stationary Power Plants Many railroads have successfully blended skimmed oil from wastewater treat- ment facihties with new fuel oil, using the product as burner fuel in power plants. In many cases the waste oil needs no pretreatment except filtration for excessive solids removal prior to blending and storage with new fuel. A typical average analysis of recovered oil based on 18 separate wastewater treatment facilities of one railroad shows tlie following characteristics: API gravity = 30-40° Flash point = 190-220° F Viscosity = 37^0 s.s.u. @ 100° F Water = 0-2% Sediment = 0.5-2% Oil of tliis quality has been blended with No. 2 fuel oil at a constant ratio of 1 to 25 for nearly two years at one facility with no burner tip fouling or other operating problems. In the majority of cases the water content of the skimmed oil can be lowered to 1% of gravity separation at the final site before blending. Some oils, of course, will not be amenable to this treatment, particularly those with extremely high surfactant and viscosity levels, and each batch of waste oil should be individually analyzed at least for water and sediment (ASTM D 287-67 or equivalent). The economics of reclaiming skimmed oil for burner fuel should be carefully studied by each individual road before attempting to install such a facility. Generally the more waste oil generated by a railroad, tlie larger a shop and the more centrally located within the railroad system that shop is, the more feasible oil reclamation becomes and the greater the return on investment. Probably the greatest value of waste oil to railroads at this time is its substitution for new burner or locomotive fuel which would otherwise have to be purchased. Reuse as Locomotive Fuel On a somewhat limited basis, waste oil, particularly that recovered from fueling stations, has been filtered and used as locomotive fuel. Naturally, filtered waste fuel oil is more suitable for this use currently than is combined oil obtained as skimmings from wastewater treatment facilities. This latter oil is usually too high in viscosity, water content, gravity and sediment and flash point to allow its direct use in loco- motives, but successful attempts have been made at blending used lube oil with new No. 1 or No. 2 fuel oil imdcr controlled conditions with its subsequent use as fuel. One case in which used crankcase oil was blended with No. 1 and No. 2 diesel fuel yielded the following analysis: 422 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association % Lube Oil tcith 1% Lube Oil with No. 1 Fuel Oil No. 2 Fuel Oil Flash point, °F 145 185 Viscosit>' @ 100° F, s.s.u. 30.3 37.3 Cetane No. 50 51 Sulfur, % 0.30 0.45 Sediment & H.O None None Ash, % None 0.006 Cloud point, °F Below —50° 0^ Pour point, °F Below —50° 0° At first glance, these analyses would seem to meet fuel specifications for some rail- roads but further characterization studies would need to be done on each individual railroad before allowing use in locomotives on a regular basis. Should waste lube oil quality be sufficiently high to make blending with fuel oil economically feasible on a particular railroad, a good quality control and handling system would have to be developed. As Source of Revenue A large number of railroads have found that waste oil from various shop facilities and wastewater treatment facilities has a growing market. Oil companies and local reclamation firms are willing to pay for waste oil on a gallon basis but uaste fuel oil is probably worth more to the railroad when used as a blended fuel in power plants in the long run, or locomotives. Sale of waste oil is usually a practical disposal method for oils which are not suitable for burner fuels. Generally, the price per gallon paid for waste oil by outside companies depends upon the quality of the particular oil. Use as locomotive or burner fuel would, of course, be dependent upon the quantities generated, handling involved and the degree of modification required to existing facilities to permit the use of this oil. The capital investment required to use waste fuel and some t>'pes of skimmed oil as fuel generally has shown a good return on investment for larger facilities. As the price of fuel oil can only increase in the future, it would behoove each railroad to study the long-term economics of selling waste oil versus "in-house" use. As Weed and Dust Control Historically, waste oils have had a very limited used by any company, but one which has been of some benefit where its use is allowed, is application for weed and dust control. Highway departments and railroads alike have used waste oil for this purpose, one for which it is well suited; however, since establishment of the federal and state environmental protection agencies, it is not likely this practice will be legal for very long. In many states there already e.xist bans on using oil for this purpose. REFERENCES 1. AREA Manual, Chapter 13, Part 1, Section 1.2, "Industrial Wastewater Treat- ment and Disposal," pp. 9-10, 18, 19, 20.3, (1972). 2. Besselievere and Schwartz, Treatment of Industrial Wastes, 2nd Edition, McGraw- Hill, New York, New York, pp. 219, 31.S-318; (1976). Environmental Engineering 423 3. The Cost of Clean Water: Vol. Ill, Industrial Waste Profiles, No. 5 — Petroleum Refining, U. S. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C., (1967). 4. Quigley, R. E. and Hoffman, E. L., "Flotation of Oily Wastes," Proc. 21st Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, pp. 527-533, (1966). 5. Schutt, G. J., Keil, C. C. and Hallasz, S. J., "Recovery and Reuse of Oil Extracted from Industrial Wastewater," Proc. 23rd Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, pp. 493-496, (1968). 6. Sittig, Marshal, Pollutant Removal Handbook, Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, N.J., pp. 343-345, (1973). 7. Wallace, A. T., Rohlich, G. A., and Villemonte, J. R., "The Effect of Inlet Con- ditions on Oil- Water Separators at Sohio's Toledio Refinery," Proc. 20th Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, pp. 618-625, (1965). Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations M. B. Miller, Chairman L. A. Durham, Jr., Vice Chairman M. J. Shearer, Secretary G. RUGGE T. C. NORDQUIST D. E. TuRNEY, Jr. D. H. Noble T, D. Kern R. D. Penhallegon J. C. Martix R. E. Ahlf C. Bach J. W. Barriger J. W. Barriger (E) K. W. Bradley W. G. Byers R. L. Carstens J. B. Clark R. P. CORNWELL L. P. Diamond W. J. Dlxon R. H. Dunn G. B. DuTTON, Jr. S. Fog ARTY J. A. Forbes B. G. Gallagher G. R. Gaspard A. J. Gellman A. M. Handwerker G. E. Hartsoe W. W. Hay L. W. Haydon J. P. Holland M. C. HOLOWATY E. C. HONATH G. R. Janosko H. C. Kendall T. J. Lamphier R. J. Lane A. S. Lang K. L. Lawson J. H. Marino R. McCann R. L. McMuRTRIE G. J. Meyer R. L. MiLNER (E) J. Neben J. F. Partridge W. L. Paul H. C. Petersen J. S. Reed F. J. RiCHTER V. J. Roggeveen A. L. Sams R. J. Schiefelbein J. H. Seamon T. G. Shedd L. K. SiLLcox (E) M. L. Silver T. H. Sjostrand J. J. Stark, Jr. J. M. SUSSMAN G. M. Tabor C. L. Towle (E) R. Turner K. B. Ullman H. Wanaselja L. E. Ward F. Wascoe D. M. Weinroth D. B. Weinstein J. R. WiLMOT T. D. Wofford, Jr. Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Railway Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. No report. 3. Determination of factors, including various traffic volumes, affecting maintenance of way expense and effect of using such factors, in terms of equated mileage or other derived factors, for allocation of available funds to maintenance of way, collaborating as necessary or desirable with Gommittees 11 and 22. (a) Additional maintenance cost due to operating 100-ton-car unit trains. Progress report presented as information page 427 4. Economic evaluation of methods for reducing the probability of de- railments. No report. 425 426 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association 5. Economics of freight cars with characteristics approaching the limits of accepted designs. No report. 6. Factors involved in rationalization of railway systems. No report. 7. Applications of industrial engineering functions to the railroad industry. No report. 8. Economics of systems for control of train operation. Advance report was published in Bulletin 659, September-October 1976. The Committee on Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations, M. B. Miller, Chairman. loftn iHalfecc K^arriger, lU i899=i976 John Walker Barriger, III, railroad executive, transportation analyst, economist, author, and history student, died on December 9, 1976, at his home in St. Louis, Mo. He joined the AREA in 1937 and became a Life Member in 1973. He was a member of Committee 16 since 1940, serving as chairman 1951-1954, and was elected Member Emeritus in 1973. He is well remembered and appreciated by his committee colleagues for his wise counsel and many contributions in the fields of railroad engineering, operation, finance and economics. He was noted for his able direction of several railroad properties and for his perceptive books, learned technical articles, and speeches on railroad matters. John Barriger was bom at Dallas, Texas, on December 3, 1899, tlie son of John Walker, Jr., and Edith Beck Barriger. Upon graduation from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( B.S. 1921 ) he embarked on a railroad career that took him from rodman on the former Pennsylvania Railroad to the presidency of four railroads. At the beginning of his path serving the railroad community he worked in assignments from shop hand to assistant yardmaster on the Pennsylvania from 1917 to 1927. He then went to Kuhn, Loeb & Co., leaving tliere in 1929 to serve as vice president and director of the investment house of International Carriers, Ltd., until May 1933. From 1933 to 1941 he served the United States as Chief, Railroad Division of the R.F.C. in Washington. He was the reorganization manager and director of the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Railroad from 1940 to 1942; serving also as associate director, Division of Railway Transport, O.D.T. and federal manager of the Toledo, Peoria & Western in 1942. From 1942 to 1946 he was a director of the former Alton Railroad. Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 427 John Barriger also worked as manager of the Diesel Locomotive Division of Fairbanks Morse & Co. from 1944 to 1946. At the vice-president level of responsi- bility he was associated \\'ith the Union Stock Yards & Transit Co. (starting in 1943), tlie former New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (1953), and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad (1953-1956). He was president, of the fonner Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville (1946-1952), the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie (1956-1964), and the Missouri-Kansas-Texas (1965-1970); and chief executive officer of the Boston & Maine (1971-1973). At the time of his death Mr. Barriger was associated with the Rock Island Lines as a consultant and senior traveling freight agent. Prior to his Rock Island appoint- ment he served as special assistant to the Federal Railroad Administrator in the U. S. Department of Transportation. In the early part of 1933 he collaborated witli F. H. Prince of Boston in the preparation of the "Prince Plan of Raihoad Consolidation." He was the author of "Super Railroads for a Dynamic American Economy," published in 1955. He is svnvived by his widow Elizabetli Thatcher Barriger, two daughters Mrs. Ann B. Salyard and Elizabeth T., and two sons John W. IV, and Stanley H. L. P. Diamond T. D. WOFFORD Memorialists Report on Assignment 3 Determination of Factors, Including Various Traffic Vol- umeSf Affecting Maintenance of Way Expense and Effect of Using Such Factors, in Terms of Equated Mileage or Other Derived Factors, for Allocation of Available Funds to Maintenance of Way T. C. NoRDQuiST (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Aiilf (vice chairman, subcom- mittee), W. G. Byers, L. p. Diamond, R. H. Dunn, G. B. Dutton, S. Fogarty, J. A. Forbes, W. W. Hay, L. W. Haydon, G. R. Janosko, T. J. Lamphier, K. L. Lawson, C. J. Meyer, J. Neben, G. M. Tabor, F. Wascoe, T. D. WOFFORD. ADDITIONAL MAINTENANCE COST DUE TO OPERATING 100-TON-CAR UNIT TRAINS Over the past several years Committee 16 has studied and progressed means of deteniiining costs and/or expense of maintenance of track for varying conditions. From its studies the committee determined that no set formula would provide an answer to satisfy all of the variable conditions encountered. Recently an element, newly recognized, is being considered which adds to maintenance of way cost. This element is known as the unit bain with cars with 428 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association capacities of 100 tons and/or gross weights of 263,000 lb on four axles. Heretofore, many railroads have operated unit trains of a single commodity in cars of lesser tonnage and have experienced normal maintenance costs. The advent of tlie heavier car unit train as well as the use of heavier cars in mixed trains have induced addi- tional track wear. This extra wear raises questions as to reasons why, and what can be done to maintain the track to a set standard. It does not appear feasible to provide a "formula" accounting for this expense. The purpose of this report is to summarize tlie efforts that have been made and are under way now to determine effects and solutions to the added impact of heavier cars in trains. A first concern is whether the carrier is being compensated in the rate structure for the added expense of not only maintenance cost but a return on the investment involved for additions to the plant needed to handle the added ton- nage efficiently and competitively with other modes of transportation. On March 26, 1975, Robert E. Ahlf addressed the AREA Technical Conference on the subject "Heavy Four-Axle Cars and Their Maintenance of Way Costs"* regarding studies and expense on the ICG. In his study Mr. Ahlf uses four basic groups of MW&S variable costs. Each group is assigned a percentage of the total MW&S and capital in\'estment which is incremental; that is, varies with toimage moving over the railroad. Then following Professor Talbot's criteria for establish- ment of a u factor for various classes of track, Mr. Ahlf ultimately establishes a set of curves for costs of MW&S for the \'ariable portion as well as total costs (variable plus constant) of three grades of track versus car capacit>'. In his conclusions, Mr. Ahlf stressed the importance of the subgrade and how advantageous it is to upgrade or maintain the subgrade and ballast sections in com- parison with relaying tiack with heavier rail to improve track performance than merely to replace in kind. The most extensive research project conducted to date for development of costs for railroad roadway is an FR.'V-sponsored study conducted by TOPS On-Line Services, Inc. (described herein under the heading, "Acknowledgments"). The study period was from June 1973, to December, 1975, and was reported out in January 1976, as "Procedures for Analyzing the Economic Costs of Railroad Roadway for Pricing Purposes." In this report certain assumptions are made which are based upon the judgment of engineers directly involved. The results produced a set of "factors" which reflect the relative effects of heavy loads over a base or a standard set of track/traffic conditions. Yet J. C. Danzig, transportation analyst for the Bureau of Transportation Research of the Southern Pacific and the project manager on the study qualifies tlie results as follows: "We should note that while these relative factors (produced in the report) are currently being utilized in our variable cost formulas for distinguishing between different types of carload/train service for pricing purposes, we have as yet made no specific attempts to structure our main- tenance planning activities accordingly. We do plan to further evaluate these resultant factors, however, in an effort to determine the extent to which they can assist us in our planning efforts." Another Federal-govemment-financed project now being established is known as "FAST" at Pueblo, Colorado. It basically consists of various types, standards, and conditions of tiack construction subject to varying tiaffic conditions. Results from all tests will not be known for years, but should provide new data which can be applied to existing results. However, as it has been pointed out to date, the real » AREA Bulletin 653, June-July, 1975, page 622. Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 429 problem is in dealing witli existing track and roadbed conditions. There is widespread concern tliat operation of 100-ton and heavier loading exceeds the long-term economic and physical capabilities of the existing track structure. On tlie other hand, empirical data are not j'et a\ailable to adequately assess the relationship between density of traffic involving a mixture of 100-ton cars and maintenance costs. Several railroads are employing modern track geometry cars for measurement of wear in an effort to determine the degree and extent of track deterioration due to increased use by both unit trains or mixed trains containing heavy cars. Others have trackage which is being used only for unit train movement which can be obser\ed and extent of maintenance readily determined. It also has been found tliat heavy cars are reducing rail life by creating metal flow and shelHng, resulting from high shearing stresses, fatigue, and otlier phenomenon in the top of the rail head. This has little relationship to rail size or track structure; it is largely related to the contact stresses at the point of wheel-rail contact. Another area of concern on lines having heavy coal movements on limited track is tlie reduction in track time available for cycle or regular maintenance. It is known that the unit labor cost for production gangs increases by a factor of not less than two if track time is reduced by 50 percent. In some cases the incremental cost is more than twice as great due to the added time lost in closing and reopening the production operation. Experience to date has been that in each case when a request has been received for a volume movement the following basic parameters are applied in the determina- tion of costs: 1. Current characteristics and condition of tlie track structure, bridges and other appurtenances. This may require certain engineering judgements to be made as to classification of existing track. 2. Volume of traflBc both as an absolute value and as a percentage of the total traffic on the line in question which the proposed heavy unit train operation would represent. Once it is known what the train size will be, number of train sets, power requirements and the product to be moved, a model can be built which tlien can be reviewed by all concerned. A critical dimension in the analysis is the maximum autliorized speed for unit trains handling other traffic. 3. Schedule requirements and associated train speeds. The shipper demand may influence the establishment of a schedule which in turn will demand not only upgrading of line but additional capital improvement as well. 4. Expected duration of the unit train operations. The time span over which a certain unit train will be expected to operate certainly would influence the amount to be expended on the upgrading of a track. The above parameters are very broad and many considerations must be dealt vdth in detail. Here again engineering judgments must be made which may diflFer from case to case. The preceding represents a very brief summary of the work to date. It appears that this is a very viable subject and will require considerably more evaluation and study. As of now there are still no direct formulas which may be applied for deriving expense costs. As there is still much to be gained in further study of this problem it is recommended that this subject be continued for another year. 430 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study reported here was conducted by TOPS On-Line Services, Inc., a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Company. The project leader was John H. Wil- Uams, manager. Bureau of Transportation Research, Southern Pacific Transportation Company. William W. Hay, professor of railway engineering at the University of Illinois, acted as primary consultant to TOPS, Inc., and was a major contributor to the project. Helene Dechief, system hbrarian, and the staff of Canadian National Railways Headquarters Library provided professional literature search and acqui- sition ser\'ices. \^incent Roggexeen, professor of transportation at Stanford Uni- versity also acted as consultant. The resultant procedures and track structure engineering data developed in the study were reviewed and evaluated by the firm of Thomas K. Dyer, Inc., Engineering Consultants, Lexington, Mass. Principal investigators in addition to the above were Robert A. Lathrop, assistant engineer. Southern Pacific Transportation Company, Jerry C. Danzig and Jerry A. Rugg, transportation analysts. Southern Pacific Transportation Company, and Albert J. Reinschmidt, lecturer. University of Illinois. The technical monitors for the Federal Railroad Administration were Gerald K. Davies and Joseph Pomponio. Managerial, professional, technical and clerical personnel of the Southern Pacific Transportation Company contributed to the computer programming, data gathering, analysis, and review tasks. Special acknowledgment is made to tlie following individuals for their efforts in behalf of the project. Kathy Holt Terry Leon Bob Ratti Mitchell Heynick John Beall Csaba Molnar Del Cardiner Norm Luttrell Gene Hannan David Mclsaac Don Odegaard The principal authors of the report were Jerry Danzig, Jerry Rugg, and John Williams of Soudiern Pacific and Professor William Hay of die University of Illinois. Report Number: RPD-11-CM-R Volume 1. REFERENCES 1. (a) Harry S. Meislahn, "Trade-Off Economics for Jumbo Rail Cars," address before Dresser Engineering Conference in Depew, N.Y. September 7, 1973. (b) Harry S. Meislahn, "Are the Big Ones Too Big," article Modern Railroads, November 1973. 2. Charles E. Webb, "Freight Car Innovation and Design," article Progressive Railroading, February 1974. 3. G. M. Magee, "Why This Wheel Wants to Climb tlie Rail," article Railway Age, March 6, 1967. 4. Robert E. Ahlf, "M/W Costs: How they arc affected by car weights and the track structure," article Railway Track and Structures, March 1975. 5. "Rigid vs. Flexible," article Modern Railroads, March 1975. 6. "Computers, track-recorder can team up in battle against derailments," article Railway Age, March 10, 1975. 7. J. R. Sunnygard, "125-T Cars: Have We Exceeded Present Rail Capacity?" presentation to AREA Committee 16 on June 17, 1976. Report of Committee 4 — Rail R. M. Brown, Chairman H. F. LONGHELT, Vice Chairman A. B. Merritt, Jr., Secretary E. H. Waring R, C. POSTELS W. J. Cruse R. F. Bush D. H. Stone L. A. LOGSDON J. I. Adams B. G. Anderson D. L. Banghart S. H. B\RLOW D. A. Bell R. E. Catlett, Ju. L. S. Crane P. K. Cruckshank Daniel Danyluk A. R. DeRosa Emil Eskengren R. C. Faulkner M. A. Ferguson B. R. Forcier E. T. Franzen W. H. Freeman A. H. Galbraith R. G. Garland G. H. Geiger W. J. Gilbert J. H. Greason, Jr. L. F. Greimann R. E. Haacke V. E. Hall C. C. Herrick W. H. Huffman T. B. HUTCHESON A. V. Johnston K. H. Kannowski R. R. Lawton W. H. Lloyd W. S. Lovelace J. F. Lyle "T. C. Mackenzie G. H. Maxwell Ray McBrian (E) J. L. Merritt B. R. Meyers (E) F. W. Michael G. E. Morgan (E) G. L. MuiwocK B. J. Murphy G. F. Overbey G. F. Parvin G. O. Penney G. L. P. Plow (E) J. M. Rankin M. S. Reid I. A. Reiner R. B. Rhode n. L. Rose G. N. Scott A. E. Shaw, Jr. L. H. Shisler W. A. Smith B. D. Sorrels G. L. Stanford D. E. Staplin R. K. Steele V. R. Terrill Erich Thomsen G. S. Triebel M. S. Wakely G. H. Way G. E. Weller S. T. WiECEK M. J. Wisnowski Committee (E) Member Emeritus. Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman, and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen. To the American Raihvay Engineering Association: Your committee reports on the following subjects: B. Revision of Manual. No report. 1. Collaborate witli AISI Technical Subcommittee, Welding Contractors, Suppliers of Field Welding, Rail Grinding and Rail Testing Contractors on Matters of Mutual Interest. Progress report, submitted as information page 433 2. Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest. (a) Study the subject of obtaining rails longer than 39 ft, looking to developing the optimum length of rail that will be acceptable, based on handling methods, supply of cars for shipping, the nunj- 431 432 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association ber of rails which can be obtained from steel company ingot molds, and otlier necessary considerations. Progress report, submitted as information page 434 3. Rail Statistics. Consolidated report of rail shipped to Nortli American railroads from Nortli American rail producing mills in 1975 by weight and section, submitted as information page 435 Statistics showing track miles of CWR laid by years since 1933, sub- mitted as information page 436 4. Up-date Data on Methods and Equipment for Making Welding Repairs to Rail and Turnouts. Summary of results for 1975 questionnaire on metliods of rebuilding rail ends, submitted as information page 440 Progress report on semi-automatic wire feed metliod of rail repairs, submitted as information page 444 5. Rail Research and Development. Progress report presented as information page 447 6. Joint Bars: Design, Specifications, Service Tests, Including Insulated Joints and Compromise Joints. No report. 10. EfiFect of Heavy Wheels Loads on Rail. No report. 11. Field Welding. No report. COMMENTARY During 1976, the Rail Committee held two formal meetings at tlie Hyatt Regency O'Hare in Chicago. A two-day spring meeting was held Thursday and Friday, May 27-28, 1976, and a three-day winter meeting was held Monday-Wednesday, Novem- ber 29 through December 1, 1976, to discuss and take action on many present and important matters. Current committee assignments of significant importance being undertaken by Committee 4 include study and preparation of revised rail specifications to provide for improved chemical composition to accommodate tlie continually increasing heavy tonnage, high speed and unit train operations; improved methods and procedures for making thermit field welds and weld repairs to certain type rail defects in welded rail; recommended intervals for testing rail for internal defects; and development of a standardized report fonn to be utilized by railroads in reporting rail failure statistics in a meaningful and reliable manner. Committee 4 intends to pursue these and other important rail related subjects to provide conclusive results in the near future. The progress reports which follow co\er some of these important subjects. The Committee on Rail, R. M. Brown, Chairman. Rail 433 Report on Assignment 1 Collaborate with AISI Technical Subcommittee, Welding Contractors, Suppliers of Field Welding, Rail Grinding and Rail Testing Contractors on Matters of Mutual Interest R. M. Brown (chairman, subcommittee), D. L. Banghart, W, J. Cruse, A. R. DeRosa, R. C. Faulkner, A. H. Galbraith, V. E. Hall, C. C. Herrick, K. H. Kannowski, H. F. Longhelt, W. S. Lovelace, T. C. Mackenzie, A. B. Merritt, Jr., M. S. Reid, H. L. Rose, C. N. Scott, L. H. Shisler, V. R. TeRRILL, M. J. WiSNOWSKI. An AREA-Industry joint subcommittee meeting was held at the Hyatt Regency O'Hare in Chicago on December 1, 1976, to develop priorities for specific subjects the industry members will undertake during 1977. Twenty- three members were in attendance witli die AISI Technical Subcom- mittee represented by 14 members from welding contractors, field welding suppliers, rail grinding and rail testing contractors. After extensive discussion and deliberation, among railroad and industry members, it was agreed the following tlrree subjects would be investigated by the AISI Technical Subcommittee commencing early in 1977: 1. Plant Welding Techniques Evaluate plant eflSciencies in regard to the proposed long rails which will be available in the fall of 1977. 2. Reliability of Field Welds Attempt to develop the quality control criteria required for the integrity of field welds (this will require the expertise of the field welding and the non-destructive testing groups). 3. Rail Testing (a) Test rail prior to welding to reduce weld cut-outs. Limitations and possible improvements. (b) Hot weld testing — limitations and possible improvements. Detailed reports will be furnished as the study of each subject progresses. 434 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Report on Assignment 2 Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest R. M. Brown (chairman, subcommittee), J. I. Adams, B. G. Anderson, R. E. Cat- LETT, Jr., W. J. Cruse, B. R. Forcier, E. T. Franzen, W. H. Freeman, R. E. Haacke, V. E. Hall, C. C. Herrick, T. B. Hutcheson, K. H. Kannowski, H. F. LoNGHELT, W. S. Lovelace, T. C. MacKenzie, A. B. Merritt, Jr., I. A. Reiner, R. B. Rhode, W. A. Smith, D. H. Stone, V. R. Terrill, M. J. WiSNOWSKI. A joint meeting was held with five technical representati\'es of rail producers at the Hyatt Regency O'Hare in Chicago on December 1, 1976, to informally present and discuss a draft of revised rail specifications recently prepared by the Rail Committee. The revised rail specifications contain improved rail chemistry, redefined dimensional and \A'eight tolerances and other important changes; and each article of the entire draft of revised rail specifications was discussed among those in attend- ance and suggested modifications made where agreed The Rail Committee will formally submit the revised rail specifications to tlie AISI Joint Contact Committee early in 1977 as it is the intent of the committee to have the revised rail specifications included in 1977 Manual recommendations. Rail 435 Report on Assignment 3 Rail Statistics E. H. Waring {chainnan, subcommittee), R. F. Bush (co-chairman, subcommittee), B. G. Anderson, D. L. Banghart, R. M. Brown, L. S. Crane, P. K. Cruck- SHANK, M. A. Ferguson, R. G. Garland, W. J. Gilbert, W. H. Huffman, T. B. Hutcheson, a. V. Johnston, R. R. Lawton, H. F. Longhelt, W. S. Lovelace, J. F. Lyle, A. B. Merritt, Jr., F. W. Michael, B. J. MxmPHY, B. F. OvERBEY, R. C. Postels, J. M. Rankin, I. A. Reiner, W. A. Smith, G. S. Triebel, G. H. Way, M. J. Wisnowski. During tlie past year, Subcommittee 3 secured from the American Iron and Steel Institute Technical Committee on Railroad Materials a summary of the tonnage of rail shipped from Canadian and United States steel mills to North American Railroads. A tabulation of this information is included herewith. It is noted that 1,110,305 tons or 86.95% of the total was in sections to which it is recommended that purchases of new rail be limited. Your committee also presents as information the accompanying statistics per- taining to continuous welded rail (CWR). Consolidated Report of Rail Shipped to North American Railroads from North American Rail Producing Mills in 1975 by Weight and Section Tons Weight Section % Total Shipped 140* AREA 9.02 115,174 136"* AREA 13.84 176,769 136 LVM 0.21 2,671 133 AREA 7.39 94,384 132" AREA 37.19 474,834 131 AREA 0.09 1,201 130 AREA 0.12 1,518 122 C.B. 1.82 23,179 119" AREA 2.88 36,755 115" AREA 22.95 293,025 100" AREA O.H 1,444 100 ARA-A 3.20 40,899 100 REHF 0.05 676 90' ARA-A 0.96 12,304 85 C.P. TOTAL 0.17 2,120 100.00 1,276,953 " Recommended .section. 436 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association OK ijn-b <3i: •J U o 35 •& t-oo T}05 1—1 1—1 1—1 1—1 O ^ O O in 1 1> CD I 05 ooo CDO 05 O5 00 05 05 COO s in 1—1 o o CD ooo ooo COO O 1 inoi CO 1 CO CO 1 r^ 3202 O r 1 00 505 I 1 OCD 1 1 ^in oo CDO cooi CO in CO O C7> in in 2 I 1 '^ 1 CO oa ^>. ..^"^ ^ C ^ O V ID .5 oQ .aao3 3 G 'TX ^ o -c rt m 0) (u rt '' G Sea ID'S C3 .S S-a G « - i« T^ ti iG G O 3 3 rt rt mmmuu « S ^ — •5 s o CD c "g 6.S "5 o G >^ _„^3:JOOOOOOOc t-crcSrtoiaJaJrtrtrt.G G ^ .y .ii .a .a .y .a .y y cuj3j:_GJ=-G^rfl_CJ3-G uuuuuuuuuou -

-"^ CO >— • lOOO CO CI Oil— I ^\ lO c405 OcO cqo o6>-i oo (M 1—1 COO I— I Tf Csl COOO 050 <35»ni> t-o 05 CO c4 I liO o .-I CO (M I 1> O «|5 be S rt Vh S ^ 00 SI 1 1^ 1 ^ 1 1 00^ 1 CO^ 1^ aJ CD CO 0(M ^^ CO ^ 1 1 1 I r 1 in CO ^ 1 I I I 05C0 1 1 in-i 00 CO 1—1 CO| I 00 ^ o SP ;2i2,.^^oa Qj i^ rt e o rt oj oj c; . . ^ OS o-Q C^U g 1-, l_ 03 O •" S rt 1/5 2 tn • — G O 3 ;g rt o C G^^ C w 3 . o 1/5 t> 2 Oi f- 1—1 u ^^ 14 ;s>^ W J o (4 & ^ o U3 a < o tf i-i < --2 u S 'C'^ a ^^4) > "3 s g (4 to 2^ -1^ pq g A ■< S"-^ s >i Pk >< ^ o 3 t^-^ « ;! u 1" b O CO H d S t)4 o K H g ooo I^ CO--I CD I— I o o o oco 22 121 1 c?q • coco ■^05 1 1 1 1^ 1 1 III Mi I rii I m 1 1 1 ri^ 00 00 CO 00 00 CO n :^ --IO0 00C o 05 lOCO CO OOi-H I I f>i I I CO 1 1 1 I CO 00 1 1^ 1 1 I I t> (M" 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 ^lo 1 CO 1 1 CJ>^ C5 cqcM •5 O C/5 ca hi o 2 Q> o §£■ lU o rt CS O O O fi 2 o tJQ ■> S M o ;q OH bO W : ?i "i^ -^ -S i 2 ■" .2 I (U ""^^ p p 05 p irt \noi t-^ I 06 -H 10 C4 I Ol r-i I 00 ■— I ■'t 01 CO .-I IC —I O O CO ■-< CO'^^O CO (35 C^' iced 00 in CO'* CO c-i ^ U CI ^ 05 OJ Tt< " c {-5 '^ c oq 00 CO 1—1 00 05 cm 01 t^ CD 1 05 01 1 f~- 1 01 1 r^ ■^ 1 \ CO t- 1> C5 r>^ a; CM ^ 0; M< (U en X Ol (N TfH ^H Ol (Tl CO -a in *- o a -a 2 ^ s o (J « w 1 H ra o O O TO .S2 b in CJ> CO' cc o tt: ftn S^ (S h §" ■5 00 Oco OCD OOCO ooesi (MCO (M 00 O •-< in in 00 o in CO 06 cot- ci I— I Tti 1—1 00 1- 03 ^•2S rt .2 .2 § rt rt F— 1 rt rt 0) rt 2j= o ■" jdcn — ~ i-< t; cj n o a 3 S o ZOCXHH 2 ^ in ^ 00 (J 00 in > fM 'TS (M « oi B O |> G O XI ' I 00 in « 2^ 3 •n a o a rt O . J5in 205 i-H "5 - iJ _fi ■^ "rt 440 BuUetin 661- -American Railway Engineering Association Track Miles 1933 1934 OF Continuous Welded Rail Laid By Years, 19. Oxy- Electric acetylene Flash 0.16 1955 194.50 72.0 0.95 1956 372.33 89.10 4.06 1957 390.47 159.65 1.52 1958 148.11 312.13 31.23 1959 378.65 691.92 6.04 1960 299.42 961.20 5.48 1961 94.13 926.50 6.29 1962 310.59 1183.34 12.88 1963 497.52 1360.48 4.81 1964 586.76 1796.74 3.91 1965 700.59 1655.74 18.70 1966 746.61 1984.71 29.93 1967 784.28 1800.27 33.05 1968 643.10 2543.61 50.25 1969 674.35 2930.01 37.25 1970 800.30 5378.32 40.00 1971 504.28 3604.72 80.00 1972 422.91 4011.29 87.00 1973 465.68 4084.27 1974 273.79 41&3.48 1975 139.58 4151.83 OF Continuous Welded Rail Laid in 1975 — ^Track 33-1975 Total 266.50 461.43 1935 1936 1937 1939 1942 550.12 460.24 1070.57 1260.62 1020.63 1943 1493.93 1944 1858.00 1945 1946 1947 2.383.50 2356.33 2731.32 1948 1949 1950 1951 2584.55 3186.71 3604.36 6178.62 1952 4109.00 1953 4434.20 1954 4767.37 4457.27 4291.41 Break-Down ( 53980.19 Miles OXYACETYLENE ELECTRIC FLASH New Secondhand New Secondhand Totals Main Track Sidings & Yard Tracks 76.87 .19 54.30 8.22 2,823.39 29.21 1,111.63 187.60 4,066.19 225.22 77.06 62.52 2,852.60 1,299.23 4,291.41 Report on Assignment 4 Up-Date Data on Methods and Equipment for Making Welding Repairs to Rail and Turnouts R. C. Postels (chainnan, subcommittee), R. M. Brown, R. E. Catlett, Jr., P. K. Cruckshank, Daniel Danyliik, A. R. DeRosa, A. H. Galbraith, J. H. Greason, K. H. Kannowski, H. F. Longhelt, W. S. Lovtelace, J. F. Lyle, A. B. Merritt, Jr., G. L. Murdock, B. J. Murphy, J. M. Rankin, R. B. Rhode, L. H. Shisler, C. L. Stanford, S. T. Wiecek. Your committee submits as information the following reports: (1) Summary of Results for 1975 Questionnaire on Methods of Rebuilding Rail Ends (2) Progress Report, Semi- Automatic Wire Feed Method of Rail Repairs Rail 441 QUESTIONNAIRE ON METHODS OF REBUILDING RAIL ENDS PROCEDtmES Totals for all 39 Railroads I. Process Used by Railroad Electric arc-AC 6 Electric arc-DC 25 Oxyacetylene 30 Semi-automatic wire feed 10 II. Equipment Used — Elec. Arc Pre-heater, kind 17 torch preheat Generator, type 6 AC, 25 DC Welding cureent (amps) 11 (180-250), 9(300-450), 3(500-550) Electrode: Kind 9 brands Size 2-3/32", 5)^", 7-5/32", 14-3/16", 13)4" Coated or uncoated 22 coated — 6 uncoated Post-heater, kind 14 torch post-heat Rail blanket 2 use blankets Surface grinders 29 Cross grinders 20 Equipment Used — Oxyacetylene Pre-heater, kind 8 torch preheat Welding Rod: Kind 12 use one brand, 2 use anotlier brand Size 1-5/32", 8-3/16", 13)4", VA" Coated or uncoated 8 use uncoated, none coated Post-heater, kind 4 torch post-heat Surface grinders 20 Cross grinders 15 Equip. — Used, Semi. Auto. Feed Pre-heater, kind 4 torch preheat Generator, type 8 railroads Welding current (amps) 2 (180-275), 5(300-350), 1(400-425) Electrode : Kind 6 brands Size 2-3/32" 2-7/64", 1-3/16" Coated or uncoated 4 use coated — 1 uncoated Post-heater, kind 2 torch post-heat Rail blanket None Surface grinders 7 Cross grinders 7 442 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association Procedures ( cont. ) III. Welding Crews A. How many — Shop crews? Field cre\\'s? B. How many contract crews? C. How many gas weld crews? Size of each ( No. ) How many electric weld crews? Size of each (No.) Use on- or off-track equip. W. Procedures in Out-of-Face Work A. Do you replace worn angle bars? 1. Do you re\erse them? 2. Out-of-face or as required? B. Joints Tightened Prior to Start? C. Joints surfaced? If Yes, before replacing bars? After rephicing bars? D. Describe Measure of Batter Prior to Welding: Straight-edge one rail Straight-edge both rails E. What amount of batter is sched- uled for welding? Minimum Maximum F. Did you do preparatory cleaning on rail heads? If so, with what? G. Was preheat used? If so, what was rail temperature? If so, what was air temperature? H. Was post-heat used? If so, what was rail temperature? What was air temperature? I. Do you repair driver burns? J. Do you apply heat to web and base to prevent dipping? Totals for all 39 Railroads (cont.) 24 941 20 391 18-2 men, 2-3 men, 2—6 men .346 21-2 men, 3-3 men, 2-6 men, 2-10 men 4 on-track, 11 off-track, 23 use both 32 Yes, 6 No 7 Yes, 27 No 30 as required 31 Yes, 6 No 35 Yes, 4 No 11 Yes, 19 No 20 Yes, 10 No 21 9 7— none, 8—0.020, 13—0.030, 7—040 20 — none, 5 — below 0.100, 10 — above 0.100 28 Yes, 10 No 5 torch, 15 grinder, 7 both 24 Yes, 13 No 9— 400°-650% 5— 700°-850° Mostly unknown 16 Yes, 21 No 5--400°-800°, 4— 900° -1250° Mostly unknown 33 Yes, 5 No 20 Yes, 15 No Rail 443 Procedures ( cont. ) K. Do you test weld for hardness? Do you test weld for defects? Type of hardness test used L. Description of weld procedure: 1. Repairing battered rail end: a. Check joint for surface, tightness, lengtli of weld, make deposit, surface grind and slot b. Same as above but pre- heat c. Same as above but also post-heat 2. Repairing engine burns: a. Tamp tie, grind or flush out, make weld deposit and grind to finish b. Same as above but pre- heat c. Same as above but also post-heat 3. Repair battered insulated joints: a. Same as No. 1 except re- place insulation when nec- essary b. Same as above but pre- heat c. Same as above but also post-heat 4. Repair soft, battered welds: a. Washout with torch and place deposit and grind b. Same as above but pre- heat c. Same as above but also post-heat M. Describe Repair of Chipped Rail Ends: a. Washout with torch or grinder, fjlace deposit and grind b. Same as above but pre- heat c. Same as alcove but also post-heat Totals for all 39 Rau^roads (cont.) 11 Yes, 28 No 16 Yes (mostly visual), 22 No 11 Telebrineller 17 with no preheat or post-heat 6 with preheat only 16 with both preheat and post-heat 15 with no preheat or post-heat 6 with preheat only 14 with both preheat and post-heat 16 with no preheat or post-heat 6 with preheat only 14 with both preheat and post-heat 12 with no preheat or i30st-heat 4 with preheat only 11 with both preheat and post-heat 13 with no preheat or post-heat 5 with preheat only 13 with both preheat and post-heat 444 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association WELDING REPAIRS OF RAIL AND TRACK MATERIALS BY THE SEMI-AUTOMATIC SELF-SHIELDING WELDING WIRE PROCESS The maintenance of way deparhnents in the railroad industry have realized for years the economy of repairing rail and track materials by welding. This has become more necessary during recent years due to the rising costs of materials, their lack of availability, and the required repair on the growing mileage of con- tinuous welded rail. The application of oxyacetylene welding to rail, and electric arc welding, using stick electrodes for manganese castings, has become inadequate, due to the hmits of gas welding and the stick electrode application. Both of these methods depend entirely on tlie skill of welders who, in recent years, have not been attracted to the railroads. Welders with the required skills have found other industries more attractive. Another problem associated with the above methods has been that of defective metal removal. The application of the oxyacetylene cutting and washing torch has always been frowned upon by maintenance of way departments due to the metal- lurgical deformation of the high-carbon rail steel and the warpage of the irregular sections due to the high heat input. The effect of the high heat of the torch abso- lutely prohibits its use on manganese castings. The only other method of metal removal until recently has been by grinding, which in itself is not 100% desirable from a metallurgical standpoint. Grinding is also costly from the standpoint of grind- ing stone and time consumption, as well as from a safety standpoint, and the grinding equipment at best is cumbersome and maintenance prone. All of these limitations were realized early in the application of welding to railroad maintenance of way materials. The first approach in trying to initiate an improvement was made in 1956-57 by a Dr. Gilson, who worked to adapt a melt- wire electrode semi-automatic wire machine to rail repair welding. The equipment used was cumbersome and limited by the concept accepted at that time, that the electrode material should match the parent metal. This of course required preheat and postheat, adding considerable to the cost per weld. The skill required in the preheating and postheating, the handhng of the gas tanks and heavy heating equip- ment, in addition to a considerable number of weld failures, indicated anodier approach was needed. Furthermore, it is important to note that it is much easier to train a person to weld, and takes less skill, with the semi-automatic process than with either gas or stick welding. Further attempts to solve the problem were made in 1966 in cooperation with York Engineering Company, suppliers of welding wire and equipment. The thought was to devise a method and a welding wire applicable both to rail and to manganese castings. The new concept was to use a low-carbon, high-alloy, cored wire electrode instead of the high-carbon materials used previously. This material did not require post and preheating due to the analysis. The material was on the shelf, available as a hard-facing electrode. The manufacturer agreed to draw the wire diameter down to 3/32 in. The weld deposit, even though soft initially, quickly work-hardened to 320 BHN on rail steel and 500 BHN on manganese castings. The 3/32-in. wire diameter lowered the heat input considerably, thereby eliminating a high pick-up of the parent metal and subsequent underbead cracking. Since then a new analysis of wire has been developed by tlie manufacturer, which, due to better fliLxing char- acteristics and alloy changes, runs better and results in a work-hardened rail steel deposit of 330-340 BHN. Rail 445 An approach to the defective metal removal on manganese castings was the adaptation of the Arcair gouging process. This process uses a round or flat carbon electrode in a compressed air torch. The carbon arc melts tlie metal and the com- pressed air removes it rapidly. No overheating of the parent metal takes place. The rapid metal removal compared to that by grinding is obvious. Since less metal is removed by Arcair gouging than by grinding, the high-cost wire electrode now becomes even more economical. An example is tlie repair of a flangeway crack. With the grinder, at least a l-in.-wide opening following the crack must be made, whereas, with a ?8-in. -diameter carbon electrode, the crack is followed and finished with a 3/16-in.-diameter carbon electrode to the base of the crack leaving a M-in.- wide opening. The speed of metal removal by this method compared to grinding must also be considered. The materials and methods described subsequently made necessary tlie develop- ment of the equipment. Several good welding wire feeders are available. The criteria for the welding machine included maintenance-free equipment, low operating cost, light weight and an attached air compressor. With the cooperation of the suppher, a diesel-driven alternator, 300 amp, 100% duty cycle welding machine with a mounted rotary 5-hp air compressor was developed. The total weight of this equipment is 2000 lb compared to the standard gas engine generator of 400-amp, 60% duty cycle of 4000 lb. This equipment, as modi- fied, has been in service for six years without major problems. The specifications for the equipment are in the Appendix. The economics of these methods are sufficient to offset the higher electrode cost. By adapting an all-electric welding program, high gas cyHnder handling and demurrage costs can be reduced to 20%. The welding cost using time spent per weld- ing operation is interesting in that in the case of two equally damaged frogs, the one using standard mediods would require two days and the one using the above methods would require a half day. Building rail ends by gas requires 30 minutes and by semi- automatic electric arc, 10 minutes. A rail end gang repairing rail ends, insulated joints and engine burns, consisting of 3 welders, 3 helpers and a laborer using 2 welding machines on push cars and 2 heavy-duty grinders, will consistently produce 100 welds a day using this new method. In the case of engine driver bums it is recommended to use an oxyacetylene washing torch. This practice is recommended to insure removal of all cracks, which frequently are covered by grinding. No joint bars are necessary on repaired engine burns. Witli 3/32-in. -diameter wire and its low heat input, it is possible to build up insulated joints without disassembling them. The end post is not damaged. The above organization will produce 100 welds a day on battered continuous welded rail joints or dipped continuous welded rail joints by welding a l-in.-wide strip in the wheel path for the length of batter or dip. In the case of manganese castings, such as in turn outs and crossings, the above methods, equipment and electrode are applicable. The Arcair eliminates excessive metal removal. A carbon flangeway insert block expedites repairing joints and elimi- nates overflow metal trimming. The importance of tlie 3/32-in.-dianieter wire again is illustrated here in the low heat input and continuous weld metal flow in the cavi- ties. The effect of too much heat input can further be reduced by skip welding. Further economies can be realized by this process in repairing switch points. Repairing switch points by the oxyacetylene method is limited to 6 in. in order to avoid distortion due to heat. In this process the carbon flangeway insert block is held against tlie ground stock rail by tiie switch point and it is built up for as much 446 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association as 48 in. in length. The carbon block is then removed and the point is ground against the stock rail. The last tv\o operations can be finished by using a hand-held right-angle heavy- duty electric grinder using either a cup stone or a reinforced abrasive disk. This grinder is powered from either a 110-volt or 220- volt AC outlet on the welder. The described methods have been designed for field application with equipment mounted on highway trailers or trucks. High-rail equipment on the trailer provides furtlier flexibility for high concentration work areas, such as yards. For more heavily damaged trackwork material the same method is applicable in a reclamation shop operation with standard air pressure resources and welding machines. Flexibility and economy can be gained by using a swing arc type of wire feeder and a 250-lb pay pack wire supply. This type of installation can serve two welding areas. During the development period of the described methods and electrodes, an attempt was made to evaluate competitive electrodes. Several competitive electrodes of similar metallurgy were found but they lacked any with 3/32 in. diameter. Several with this diameter were single-pass hard-facing electrodes lacking the fluxing characteristic necessary for a multiple-pass application. Easy slag removal is very important for an economic operation. The described methods of electrode wires and equipment being used have progressed over the past 6 years, from one unit and approximately 2000 lb of wire to 26 units and approximately 40,000 lb of wire at the present time plus high gain usage on other railroads as well. APPENDIX SEMI-AUTOMATIC RAIL WELDING OUTFIT Item 1 Power Source — 300 amp, 100% duty cycle, railroad special welding power source, diesel-driven, including 5-hp air compressor. Skid mounted. Or Same as above with the addition of a four-wheel trailer with hitch and brake system. Item 2 Feeder System — 400 CY-2 wire feeder with spool adapter for 350 welding wire on 50-lb spools. Includes 15-ft gun and cable assembly. Ite7n 3 Recommended Feeder Spare Parts and Supplies — 24 CWS opp-19 contact tips 2 No. 2585-B curved nozzle assembly 12 No. 4955- A 1 silicon rubber nozzle covers 1 No. 3089-A 15 liner spring Iteiii 4 Arcair gouging equipment and supplies — 1 Arcair Model K-1553 railroad model torch 500 pes. % X 3/16 X 12" flat carbon electrodes 500 pes. ^ X 12 dia. copperclad carbon electrodes 500 pes. 5/16 X 12 dia. copperclad carbon electrodes R^l 447 Item 5 Compressed Air Accessories — 250 ft length air hose with required fittings and valves Item 6 Track, Frog and Switch Accessories — 1 set CWS-2400 carbon inserts (consists of 2 CWS-2400-A and 2 CWS 2400-C) Item 7 Welder Accessories — 1 electrode holder 4 20 F terminals 3 No. 33 ground clamps 4 100 ft lengths 2/0 cable 1 12 ft length 2/0 stinger lead cable 2 No. 4MBP cable connectors 2 No. 4MBP connectors, male only 2 REL-22 cable lugs Item 8 Welder Supplies — 1 990 welding helmet with lens 1 shade 9— 4M x 5>A filter plate 12 CR-39 4)2 x 5;4 plastic cover lens Item 9 Semi-Automatic Hard-Facing Wire — 350 hard-surfacing welding wire 3/32-in.-diameter on 50-lb spool Reporf on Assignment 5 Rail Research and Developmenf W. J. Cruse (chairman, subcommittee), B. G. Anderson, R. M. Brown, Daniel Danylxjk, a. R. DeRosa, G. H. Geiger, R. E. Haacke, W. H. Huffman, T. B. Hutcheson, H. F. Longhelt, W. S. Lovelace, T. G. Mackenzie, A. B. Merritt, Jr., J. L. Merritt, G. O. Penney, J. M. Rankin, W. A. Smith, R. K. Steele, D. H. Stone, G. H. Way, M. J. Wisnowski. Your committee presents as information the following report evaluating chrome- columbium rail produced by the Sydney Steel Corporation. The audiors of the report are G. L. Leadley, research metallurgist, and L. D. Fleming, assistant metallurgist. Technical Center, Research and Test Department, Association of American Railroads. 448 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineering Association EVALUATION OF CHROME-COLUMBIUM ALLOY RAIL PRODUCED BY THE SYDNEY STEEL CORPORATION ABSTRACT During 1973 tlie Sydney Steel Corporation produced two experimental heats of rail steel containing chromium and columbium, as well as high silicon. Each heat was vacuum-degassed and fully killed to produce a fine-grained quality steel. Both heats were rolled into 132 RE rail for Canadian Pacific Limited. An investigation of the metallurgical and physical properties of both steel heats showed them to be above average in resistance to shelling, strength, ductility, hard- ness, slow bend results and microcleanliness. These attributes were offset, to a degree, by a significant reduction in fracture toughness. Two welded joints, preheated and unpreheated, were examined for general quality and found to be acceptable. INTRODUCTION During 1973 die Sydney Steel Corporation produced two experimental heats of alloy rail steel containing chromium and coliunbium (niobium), as well as high silicon. These heats, designated as 14590 and 14592, were vacuum-degassed in the ladle by the D-H process and teamed in big-end-down molds utilizing exothermic hot top liners. The practice followed was designed to yield a fully killed, fine grained, quality steel. The Association of American Railroads, as part of its continuing policy of evaluating rails of unique composition or processing, obtained samples of both steel heats through the cooperation of the Canadian Pacific. These samples were received in the form of 132 RE rail and were investigated for both physical and metallurgical properties. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The investigation described herein was undertaken by the Association of Ameri- can Railroads as a service to the industry and, as such, bore all related costs. The laboratory work was conducted at the direction of co-author C. L. Leadley, research metallurgist, with the assistance of H. B. Johnson and co-author L. D. Fleming, assistant metallurgists. Grateful acknowledgment is extended to W. A. Smith, chief engineer (now retired), and other personnel of the Canadian Pacific, for their assistance in procuring the rail samples. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES Sample rail sections were delivered to the AAR Technical Center in December 1973 and were described as follows: Sample 1: A 6-ft length with a weld at tlie center joining sections of rail 14590-6A and 14592-18B. The electric flash butt weld was made using an initial 500 F preheat and seven preheats of three seconds duration. Sample 2: A 6-ft length welded in the same manner as sample 1 except no initial preheat was used. Rail 449 Sample 3: A 6-ft section of rail 14592-18B. Sample 4: A 6-ft section of rail 14590-6A. Samples 1 and 2 were sliced to yield one cantilever and two cradle rolling- load specimens each. The other two samples (3 and 4) were used for slow bend and drop weight tests, as well as metallurgical and physical properties specimens. Through tlie rest of this report, the two heats of rail will be identified by an abbreviated form of their heat numbers. Rail No. 14590-6A will be referred to as heat 90 and rail No. 14592-18B as heat 92. DISCUSSION OF TESTS The tests performed are listed in Table I and are discussed in detail below. 1 . Cantilever Rolling-Load Test The two welded joints formed between a section of heat 90 rail and a section of heat 92 rail were subjected to fatigue testing on a 12-in.-stroke rolling-load machine. The loading arrangement used in this test is shown in Figure 1. A wheel load of 57,500 lb (256 kN) was used, developing a bending moment of 575,000 in.-lb (65.0 kN-m) at tlae center of the weld which is positioned 2 in. (5.08 cm) beyond the front support. The outer longitudinal fibers of tlie rail head were sub- jected to cyclic stresses ranging from to 25,555 psi (176.2 MPa). Both the preheated joint and the joint witliout preheating withstood the full test run-out of 2,000,000 cycles without failure. 2. Cradle Rolling-Load Test Two sections from heat 90 and two sections from heat 92 were subjected to testing in the cradle-type rolling-load machine to determine the rails' resistance to shelling. The test set-up is shown in Figure 2. In tliis test a 14/8-in. (0.378 m) long section of rail is gradually rotated about the longitudinal axis to an angle 13° from the vertical and back again as the wheel moves repeatedly over a 7-in. (17.8-cm) path on tlie rail head. The wheel applies a load of 50,000 lb (222.4 kN) to the rail head. The base of the rail is seated on a flat plate, so that there is no bending moment. The test is continued until 5,000,000 cycles have been completed or until shelling appears at tlie surface of tlie rail. The rail is removed from the machine periodically and checked ultrasonically to determine if shelling has been initiated. Three of Uie four specimens subjected to this test completed the full 5,000, OOO cycles without shelling. One specimen from heat 92 began shelling after 1,740,000 cycles. The average number of cycles required to develop a shell in standard carbon rail has been determined to be 1,402,500 cycles using a load of 50,000 lb (222 kN). This was calculated from the results of 33 cradle-type rolling-tests on standard carbon rails (all sections) as reported in tlie AREA proceedings from the year 1949 through 1965. 3. Drop Test Sample 4, from heat 90, was subjected to a drop test in which tlie rail was placed head-up on two supports spaced 4 ft (1.219 m) apart. A tup weighing 2000 lb (8.90 kN) was dropped from a height of 22 ft (6.71 m), developing an impact energy of 44,000 ft-lb (59.7 kj) on impact witli die rail head midway between the two supports. This procedure is in accordance with AREA Specification 4-2-3, 450 Bulletin 661 — American Railway Engineerin g Association paragraph 7. The rail sample is required to withstand one impact without breaking. Sample No. 4 withstood five such impacts without breaking. 4. Slow Bend Test RaU Sample 3, from heat 92, was subjected to a slow bend test. This test was made with the rail section placed head-up on two supports placed 4 ft (1.219 m) apart with a two-point loading apphed 6 in. ( 15.2 cm ) on each side of the mid-point of the two lower supports. With this loading arrangement, shown in Figure 3, the rail head is subjected to a compressi\'e stress and the base to a tensile stress. The load was recorded at every 0.1 in. (2.54 mm) of deflection. The results of the test are shown in Table II along with values averaged for standard 132 RE carbon rail. The rail section did not break at the maximum deflec- tion where the test was stopped. All parameters except for deflection are higher than for the standard. 5. Tensile Tests Two ASTM standard 0.505-in. -diameter tensile specimens were cut from adjacent positions in the head of rail sections from both heats. The axes of these specimens were in the running direction of the rail. The yield and ultimate strengths, percent elongation and percent reduction of area were then determined for each specimen. The results of the tests are given in Table II together with die average properties of se\eral 132 RE carbon steel rails. It can be seen that both strength and ductility are substantially higher than this average for both heats of rail. 6. Instrumented Impact Tests Standard Charpy "V" notched specimens were fabricated from plates cut from the heads of rail sections from both heat 90 and 92. The axes of these specimens were oriented in the longitudinal or running direction of the rail with tlie notches running in the transverse or lateral direction. Each specimen was fatigued to form a crack at the base of the notch, The crack was allowed to extend in the transverse plane of the specimen until the combined depth of the notch and tlie crack was 30% to 50% of the thickness. Instrumented impact tests were performed on the Charpy bars at temperatures from — 50°F (— 46'C) to 400'F (204"C). The ultimate impact load and the energy to failure were recorded to compute tlie Kid and the energy per unit area (W/A) for tliat specimen. The W/A data are presented in graphic fonn in Figure 4 for heat 90 and in Figure 5 for heat 92. The Km, or dynamic fracture toughness data, were determined to be invalid because tlie precracks were formed almost entirely by cleavage propa- gation, with uneven and branching crack fronts, rather tlian the even straight fatigue cracks required for this test. As diis difliculty is not normally encountered in the precracking of other carbon steel rail samples, it serves as a qualitative indication of a rather low fracture toughness for diis material. The scatter in the W/A data for heat 92 in Figure 5 is a result of tlie difficulty of measuring die length of the brittle precracks when the impact test also extends the cracks by cleavage. The W/A is a function of precrack length. The scatter is negligible for the data on heat 90 in Figure 4 because heat tinting was used to define the precrack prior to testing. Rad 451 These results indicate tliat the fracture toughness of this alloy rail steel is sig- nificantly lower at all temperatures than that recorded for other standard AREA composition rail. This was confirmed for the room temperature case by testing two ?ji-in.-thick compact tension specimens per ASTM E 399 to determine the Kio value. The average value of 33.7 Ksi in.^'^ (37.1 MPa-m^'^) compares unfavorably with the result of 40.5 Ksi in.^^" (44.5 MPa-m'/^) obtained from a rail made to the standard chemical specification. 7. Chemical Analysis Specimens representing each steel heat were obtained for chemical analysis from transverse planes in the rail head at positions corresponding to the mean ingot location. The analysis was performed by an outside orgairization. The results of tlie analysis were then compared to the chemical composition specified in the AREA Manual for Railway Engineering, Vol. 1, Section 4-2—1, paragraph 3 and also to the manufacturer's own specifications. The compositions and specifications are shown in Table IV. 8. Macroscopic Examination To determine qualitatively tlie extent of segregation in the rails, transverse sections from both heats were etched in a hot H